Bile duct injury during laparoscopic cholecystectomy: results of a national survey

A 'critical view' on a classical pitfall in laparoscopic cholecystectomy!

INTRODUCTION

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy is the most common laparoscopic surgery performed by general surgeons. Although being a routine procedure, classical pitfalls shall be regarded, as misperception of intraoperative anatomy is one of the leading causes of bile duct injuries. The "critical view of safety" in laparoscopic cholecystectomy serves the unequivocal identification of the cystic duct before transection. The aim of this manuscript is to discuss classical pitfalls and bile duct injury avoiding strategies in laparoscopic cholecystectomy, by presenting an interesting case report.

PRESENTATION OF CASE

A 71-year-old patient, who previously suffered from a biliary pancreatitis underwent laparoscopic cholecystectomy after ERCP with stone extraction. The intraoperative situs showed a shrunken gallbladder. After placement of four trocars, the gall bladder was grasped in the usual way at the fundus and pulled in the right upper abdomen. Following the dissection of the triangle of Calot, a "critical view of safety" was established. As dissection continued, it however soon became clear that instead of the cystic duct, the common bile duct had been dissected. In order to create an overview, the gallbladder was thereafter mobilized fundus first and further preparation resumed carefully to expose the cystic duct and the common bile duct. Consecutively the operation could be completed in the usual way.

DISCUSSION

Despite permanent increase in learning curves and new approaches in laparoscopic techniques, bile duct injuries still remain twice as frequent as in the conventional open approach. In the case presented, transection of the common bile duct was prevented through critical examination of the present anatomy. The "critical view of safety" certainly offers not a full protection to avoid biliary lesions, but may lead to a significant risk minimization when consistently implemented.

CONCLUSION

A sufficient mobilization of the gallbladder from its bed is essential in performing a critical view in laparoscopic cholecystectomy.

Near-infrared fluorescent cholangiography facilitates identification of biliary anatomy during laparoscopic cholecystectomy

BACKGROUND

Intraoperative cholangiography (IOC) is the current gold standard for biliary imaging during laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC). However, utilization of IOC remains low. Near-infrared fluorescence cholangiography (NIRF-C) is a novel, noninvasive method for real-time, intraoperative biliary mapping. Our aims were to assess the safety and efficacy of NIRF-C for identification of biliary anatomy during LC.

METHODS

Patients were administered indocyanine green (ICG) prior to surgery. NIRF-C was used to identify extrahepatic biliary structures before and after partial and complete dissection of Calot's triangle. Routine IOC was performed in each case. Identification of biliary structures using NIRF-C and IOC, and time required to complete each procedure were collected.

RESULTS

Eighty-two patients underwent elective LC with NIRF-C and IOC. Mean age and body mass index (BMI) were 42.6 ± 13.7 years and 31.5 ± 8.2 kg/m(2), respectively. ICG was administered 73.8 ± 26.4 min prior to incision. NIRF-C was significantly faster than IOC (1.9 ± 1.7 vs. 11.8 ± 5.3 min, p < 0.001). IOC was unobtainable in 20 (24.4 %) patients while NIRF-C did not visualize biliary structures in 4 (4.9 %) patients. After complete dissection, the rates of visualization of the cystic duct, common bile duct, and common hepatic duct using NIRF-C were 95.1, 76.8, and 69.5 %, respectively, compared to 72.0, 75.6, and 74.3 % for IOC. In 20 patients where IOC could not be obtained, NIRF-C successfully identified biliary structures in 80 % of the cases. Higher BMI was not a deterrent to visualization of anatomy with NIRF-C. No adverse events were observed with NIRF-C.

CONCLUSIONS

NIRF-C is a safe and effective alternative to IOC for imaging extrahepatic biliary structures during LC. This technique should be evaluated further under a variety of acute and chronic gallbladder inflammatory conditions to determine its usefulness in biliary ductal identification.

Postcholecystectomy bile duct injury and its sequelae: pathogenesis, classification, and management

A bile duct injury sustained during cholecystectomy can change the life of patients who submit themselves to a seemingly innocuous surgery. It has far-reaching medical, socioeconomic, and legal ramifications. Attention to detail, proper interpretation of variant anatomy, use of intraoperative cholangiography, and conversion to an open procedure in cases of difficulty can avoid/lessen the impact of some of these injuries. Once suspected, the aims of investigation are to establish the type and extent of injury and to plan the timing and mode of intervention. The principles of treatment are to control sepsis and to establish drainage of all liver segments with minimum chances of restricturing. Availability of expertise, morbidity, mortality, and quality of life issues dictate the modality of treatment chosen. Endoscopic intervention is the treatment of choice for minor leaks and provides outcomes comparable to surgery in selected patients with lateral injuries and partial strictures. A Roux-en-Y hepaticojejunostomy (HJ) by a specialist surgeon is the gold standard for high strictures, complete bile duct transection and has been shown to provide excellent long-term outcomes. Percutaneous intervention is invaluable in draining bile collections and is useful in treating post-HJ strictures. Combined biliovascular injuries, segmental atrophy, and secondary biliary cirrhosis with portal hypertension are special circumstances which are best managed by a multidisciplinary team at an experienced center for optimal outcomes.

Single-port cholecystectomy versus multi-port cholecystectomy: a prospective cohort study with 222 patients

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to compare single-port access cholecystectomy (SPA) with the standard laparoscopic technique (LC) regarding the duration of the operation, complications, learning curve, late postoperative quality of life (QoL) and the incidence of incisional hernias.

METHODS

Between June 2009 and December 2011, a total of 122 SPA cholecystectomies were performed in our hospital. Simultaneously, 310 patients were operated on with the LC technique. In the LC group, 100 patients met the same criteria defined for SPA surgery. The two groups (SPA and LC) were compared by multivariable regression analysis. Endpoints of this study were quality of life (QoL) after 6 months by the EQ-5D questionnaire 5L and the incidence of incisional hernia 1 year after surgery. Operating time, hospital stay, and perioperative complications were also measured and compared. The median follow-up was 9.2 months (3-25 months).

RESULTS

The patients in the SPA group were younger and more often female. The mean operating time for group SPA was 73 min (35-136 min)-significantly longer than that for group LC with 60 min (33-190 min) (p < 0.001). Additional trocars were used in 8 of 122 (6.5 %) SPA patients. A conversion to open cholecystectomy was not necessary in SPA patients. The conversion rate in the LC group to open cholecystectomy was 2 % (2/100). The perioperative and postoperative complications and incisional hernia (5.5 %) were the same in both groups. QoL was significantly better in the SPA group in terms of mobility (p = 0,002), usual activity (p = 0.036), and overall anxiety (p = 0.026).

CONCLUSIONS

SPA cholecystectomy is safe, although the operation is significantly longer. No differences in terms of major complications or the incidence of incisional hernia were seen after 1 year. QoL was significantly better in patients operated on with the SPA technique.

Hepatectomy for bile duct injuries: when is it necessary?

Iatrogenic bile duct injuries (IBDI) are still a challenge for surgeons. The most frequently, they are caused by laparoscopic cholecystectomy which is one of the commonest surgical procedure in the world. Endoscopic techniques are recommended as initial treatment of IBDI. When endoscopic treatment is not effective, surgery is considered. Different surgical biliary reconstructions are performed in most patients in IBDI. Roux-Y hepaticojejunostomy is the commonest biliary reconstruction for IBDI. In some patients with complex IBDI, hepatectomy is required. Recently, Li et al analyzed the factors that had led to hepatectomy for patients with IBDI after laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC). Authors concluded that hepatectomy might be necessary to manage early or late complications after LC. The study showed that proximal IBDI (involving hepatic confluence) and IBDI associated with vascular injuries were the two independent risk factors of hepatectomy in this series. Authors distinguished two main groups of patients that require liver resection in IBDI: those with an injury-induced liver necrosis necessitating early intervention, and those in whom liver resection is indicated for treatment of liver atrophy following long-term cholangitis. In this commentary, indications for hepatectomy in patients with IBDI are discussed. Complex biliovascular injuries as indications for hepatectomy are presented. Short- and long-term results in patients following liver resection for IBDI are also discussed. Hepatectomy is not a standard procedure in surgical treatment of IBDI, but in some complex injuries it should be considered.

New technologies for single-site robotic surgery in hepato-biliary-pancreatic surgery

Laparoendoscopic single-site surgery (LESS) aims to reduce incision-related complications by using a single surgical access through which multiple instruments are inserted simultaneously. First descriptions of LESS procedures date back to the early 90 s, but the approach initially failed to gain popularity because of technical challenges that markedly impair the principles of laparoscopic ergonomics. In recent years LESS has been increasingly applied to hepatobiliary procedures including cholecystectomies and liver resections. However, the uptake of LESS in hepatobiliary is limited. The surgical robotic platform might play a fundamental role in facilitating the uptake of LESS by the surgical community since robotic science made it possible to develop adequate technology to deal with some of the LESS issues such as restoring surgical triangulation. In this paper the current state-of-the-art for robotic LESS applied to the hepatobiliary system and emerging technologies enabling safer LESS procedures have been reviewed and future perspectives commented on the light of our experience.

Bile Duct Injury-from Injury to Repair: an Analysis of Management and Outcome

Despite advances in speciality care, mortality and morbidity remain the most important issues in the management of post-cholecystectomy bile duct injuries. We analysed the peri-operative management of post-cholecystectomy bile duct injuries to assess their outcomes. Of 150 patients with post-cholecystectomy bile duct injuries, 13 patients who presented with strictured hepaticojejunostomy were excluded from the analysis. The records of the remaining 137 patients were analysed for type of presentation, management and follow-up. Of 137 injuries, 88 were open and 49 were laparoscopic. Various presentations include acute bile duct injury (n = 5), bile collection (n = 45), external biliary fistula (n = 46) and stricture (n = 41). After initial management, three patients died (sepsis, n = 2; pseudoaneurysmal bleed, n = 1). Of 107 patients who underwent definitive repair, three died (portal hypertension, n = 2; sepsis, n = 1). At median follow-up of 30 months, 100 patients had good outcome (grade A, B), and only 4 had bad outcome (grade C, D) as per McDonald grading. Peritonitis and sepsis in the early phase and portal hypertension and cirrhosis in the late phase are the main causes of mortality in patients sustaining bile duct injury during cholecystectomy. Successful management in a specialist hepatobiliary centre can limit the morbidity in more than 90 % cases.

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy in ibadan, southwest Nigeria

BACKGROUND

Performing laparoscopic surgery in developing countries is challenging due to limited funds and instrumentation. Open cholecystectomy for the management of gallbladder pathologies is still rife in low income countries. The low incidence of post- operative morbidity and early return to activities of daily living makes laparoscopic surgery increasingly desirable. This retrospective study reviews the outcomes and challenges of laparoscopic cholecystectomies done over a two year period in a developing country.

METHODS

We reviewed the records of all patients who consented to laparoscopic cholecystectomy at the Department of Surgery, University College Hospital (UCH) Ibadan between June 2011 and June 2013.

RESULT

Of the 77 patients requiring gallbladder surgery during the study period 42 (54.5%) patients underwent laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Most patients were middle aged with a mean duration of symptoms of 20 months. None of the patients required biliary exploration. The most frequent operative complication was port site infection in 7 patients (14.3%). The average hospital stay was 2.7 days and most 27 (64%) patients were followed up at the outpatients department for over 6 months post- surgery with no identifiable morbidity. There were three conversions to open cholecystectomy.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite the small number of patients in this study, laparoscopic cholecystectomy can be practiced with good outcome even in a limited resource setting.

Double incision laparoscopic cholecystectomy (DILC) with routinary intra-operative cholangiography (IOC) : less trauma, same safety. Report on 30 consecutive non-selected cases

Laparoscopic approach for cholecystectomy is, actually, the gold standard for gallbladder surgical benign diseases. Single transumbilical incision can further reduce abdominal wall trauma. Two main related issues are still to be enlighten: difficulty in obtaining a clear exposure of the Calot's triangle and routinely use of intra-operative cholangiography (IOC). A standardized technique of double incision laparoscopic cholecystectomy (DILC) with routine IOC is described. Between January and May 2012, 30 consecutive patients scheduled for elective cholecystectomy underwent DILC with IOC. Exclusion criteria were: clinical and/or radiological suspect of gallbladder malignancy/acute cholecystitis (AC)/common duct stones; ASA > 3; previous extensive abdominal surgery. Follow-up was performed at 7, 30 and 60 days postoperatively. Three 5-mm trocars through the umbilicus and one 3-mm subcostally on the right are used, along with a 30° laparoscopic camera. IOC is performed through the 3-mm channel. Median age was 49.5 years (range 24-78); female/male was 21/9. Median BMI was 27.4 (range 16.2-38.9). AC was encountered in five cases (17 %). Synchronous AC and choledocolithiasis occurred in one case (3 %), requiring conversion to laparoscopic choledocolithotomy. Additional ports were required in these latter five patients (17 %). IOC was routinely attempted in all patients, succeeding in 26 (86 %). Median operative 'skin to skin' time was 47.8 min (range 25-75). In the subgroup not receiving IOC, median operative time was 35 min (range 25-45); 51.5 min as median time (range 25-75) was reported for the subgroup undergone the entire planned procedure. No intraoperative complications occurred. Median length of stay was 1.51 days (range 1-5). Postoperative minor complications occurred in three patients (10 %) and wound umbilical infection occurred in one (3.4 %). DILC with the routine use of IOC seems to be repeatable and safe. Even if DILC seems more easily learnt, further studies are needed to address this issue.

Current treatment of benign biliary strictures

Endoscopy is a widely used approach for the treatment of benign biliary strictures. Most common benign biliary strictures amandable to endoscopic treatment are post-cholecystectomy, dominant biliary strictures due to primary sclerosing cholangitis, biliary anastomotic strictures occurring after liver transplantation, and common bile duct strictures due to chronic pancreatitis. Surgery is a valid option in cases of complete transection or ligation of the common bile duct, in selected patients with benign strictures related to chronic pancreatitis, and in noncompliant patients. In any case, even in these patients, endoscopy should always be attempted, because it is safe and repeatable. Endoscopic treatment consists of passing the stricture and placement of at least one large bore plastic stent, followed by further sessions of stenting with multiple plastic stents. Temporary placement of multiple plastic stents is the recommended approach in patients with benign biliary strictures. Self-expandable metal stents have a larger diameter compared to plastic stents, and can be covered and uncovered. Placement of uncovered metal stents in patients with benign biliary strictures is strongly discouraged. However, covered self-expandable metal stents can be safely placed in selected patients.

Quality-of-life assessment in the treatment of iatrogenic bile duct injuries: hepaticojejunostomy versus end-to-end biliary reconstructions

BACKGROUND

Assessment and comparison of quality of life (QOL) in patients treated for iatrogenic bile duct injuries (IBDI) with Roux-en-Y hepaticojejunostomy (HJ) or end-to-end ductal anastomosis (EE).

METHODS

The Medical Outcomes Study Short Form 36v2 (SF-36v2) Health Survey and the Karnofsky score were used. Comparative analysis of QOL was performed in 41 patients following reconstructive surgery for IBDI between 1990 and 2005: 22 - HJ and 21 - EE.

RESULTS

Seven of eight values were comparable in both analysed groups: role-physical, bodily pain, general health, vitality, social functioning, role-emotional and mental health index. Physical functioning was significantly better in patients following EE (P = 0.04). Physical component summary (P = 0.11) and mental component summary (P = 0.92) in both groups were comparable. QOL according to the Karnofsky scale was comparable in both groups (P = 0.294).

CONCLUSIONS

Physical functioning was significantly better in patients after EE. Other values of QOF according to the SF-36v2 and the Karnofsky score were comparable in both groups.

Indocyanine-green-loaded microballoons for biliary imaging in cholecystectomy

We encapsulate indocyanine green (ICG) in poly[(D,L-lactide-co-glycolide)-co-PEG] diblock (PLGA-PEG) microballoons for real-time fluorescence and hyperspectral imaging of biliary anatomy. ICG-loaded microballoons show superior fluorescence characteristics and slower degradation in comparison with pure ICG. The use of ICG-loaded microballoons in biliary imaging is demonstrated in both biliary-simulating phantoms and an ex vivo tissue model. The biliary-simulating phantoms are prepared by embedding ICG-loaded microballoons in agar gel and imaged by a fluorescence imaging module in a Da Vinci surgical robot. The ex vivo model consists of liver, gallbladder, common bile duct, and part of the duodenum freshly dissected from a domestic swine. After ICG-loaded microballoons are injected into the gallbladder, the biliary structure is imaged by both hyperspectral and fluorescence imaging modalities. Advanced spectral analysis and image processing algorithms are developed to classify the tissue types and identify the biliary anatomy. While fluorescence imaging provides dynamic information of movement and flow in the surgical region of interest, data from hyperspectral imaging allow for rapid identification of the bile duct and safe exclusion of any contaminant fluorescence from tissue not part of the biliary anatomy. Our experiments demonstrate the technical feasibility of using ICG-loaded microballoons for biliary imaging in cholecystectomy.

Percutaneous transhepatic balloon dilation of biliary-enteric anastomotic strictures after surgical repair of iatrogenic bile duct injuries

Purpose

To evaluate the efficacy of percutaneous balloon dilation of biliary-enteric anastomotic strictures resulting from surgical repair of laparoscopic cholecystectomy-related bile duct injuries.

Material and Methods

A total of 61 patients were referred to our institution from 1995 to 2010 for treatment of obstruction at the biliary-enteric anastomosis following surgical repair of laparoscopic cholecystectomy-related bile duct injuries. Of these 61 patients, 27 underwent surgical revision upon stricture diagnosis, and 34 patients were managed using balloon dilation. Of these 34 patients, 2 were lost to follow up, leaving 32 patients for analysis. The primary study objective was to determine the clinical success rate of balloon dilation of biliary-enteric anastomotic strictures. Secondary study objectives included determining anastomosis patency, rates of stricture recurrence following treatment, and morbidity.

Results

Balloon dilation of biliary-enteric anastomotic strictures was clinically successful in 21 of 32 patients (66%). Anastomotic stricture recurred in one of 21 patients (5%) after an average of 13.1 years of follow-up. Patients who were unsuccessfully managed with balloon dilation required significantly more invasive procedures (6.8 v. 3.4; p = 0.02) and were left with an indwelling biliary catheter for a significantly longer period of time (8.8 v. 2.0 months; p = 0.02) than patients whose strictures could be resolved by balloon dilation. No significant differences in the number of balloon dilations performed (p = 0.17) or in the maximum balloon diameter used (p = 0.99) were demonstrated for patients with successful or unsuccessful balloon dilation outcomes.

Conclusion

Percutaneous balloon dilation of anastomotic biliary strictures following surgical repair of laparoscopic cholecystectomy-related injuries may result in lasting patency of the biliary-enteric anastomosis.

Effect of intended intraoperative cholangiography and early detection of bile duct injury on survival after cholecystectomy: population based cohort study

OBJECTIVES

To determine whether the routine use of intraoperative cholangiography can improve survival from complications related to bile duct injuries.

DESIGN

Population based cohort study.

SETTING

Prospectively collected data from the Swedish national registry of gallstone surgery and endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography, GallRiks. Multivariate analysis done by Cox regression.

POPULATION

All cholecystectomies recorded in GallRiks between 1 May 2005 and 31 December 2010.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Evidence of bile duct injury, rate of intended use of intraoperative cholangiography, and rate of survival after cholecytectomy.

RESULTS

During the study, 51,041 cholecystectomies were registered in GallRiks and 747 (1.5%) iatrogenic bile duct injuries identified. Patients with bile duct injuries had an impaired survival compared with those without injury (mortality at one year 3.9% v 1.1%). Kaplan-Meier analysis showed that early detection of a bile duct injury, during the primary operation, improved survival. The intention to use intraoperative cholangiography reduced the risk of death after cholecystectomy by 62% (hazard ratio 0.38 (95% confidence interval 0.31 to 0.46)).

CONCLUSIONS

The high incidence of bile duct injury recorded is probably from GallRiks' ability to detect the entire range of injury severities, from minor ductal lesions to complete transections of major ducts. Patients with bile duct injury during cholecystectomy had impaired survival, and early detection of the injury improved survival. The intention to perform an intraoperative cholangiography reduced the risk of death after cholecystectomy.

Prevention and treatment of bile duct injuries during laparoscopic cholecystectomy: the clinical practice guidelines of the European Association for Endoscopic Surgery (EAES)

BACKGROUND

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy is one of the most common surgical procedures in Europe (and the world) and has become the standard procedure for the management of symptomatic cholelithiasis or acute cholecystitis in patients without specific contraindications. Bile duct injuries (BDI) are rare but serious complications that can occur during a laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Prevention and management of BDI has given rise to a host of publications but very few recommendations, especially in Europe.

METHODS

A systematic research of the literature was performed. An international expert panel was invited to appraise the current literature and to develop evidence-based recommendations. Statements and recommendations were drafted after a consensus development conference in May 2011, followed by presentation and discussion at the annual congress of the EAES held in Torino in June 2011. Finally, full guidelines were consented and adopted by the expert panel via e-mail and web conference.

RESULTS

A total of 1,765 publications were identified through the systematic literature search and additional submission by panellists; 671 publications were selected as potentially relevant. Only 46 publications fulfilled minimal methodological criteria to support Clinical Practice Guidelines recommendations. Because the level of evidence was low for most of the studies, most statements or recommendations had to be based on consensus of opinion among the panel members. A total of 15 statements and recommendations were developed covering the following topics: classification of injuries, epidemiology, prevention, diagnosis, and management of BDI.

CONCLUSIONS

Because BDI is a rare event, it is difficult to generate evidence for prevention, diagnosis, or the management of BDI from clinical studies. Nevertheless, the panel has formulated recommendations. Due to the currently limited evidence, a European registry should be considered to collect and analyze more valid data on BDI upon which recommendations can be based.

Bile duct injury during laparoscopic cholecystectomy without intraoperative cholangiography: a retrospective study on 1,100 selected patients

BACKGROUND

Whether to routinely or selectively use intraoperative cholangiography (IOC) during laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC) has been a controversial issue for many years. Many authors maintain that IOC decreases the rate of biliary complications such as bile duct injuries, biliary leak, and missed common bile duct (CBD) stones. However, in contrast to these claims, many centers have opted to perform LC without IOC. In this retrospective study, the results of a series of 1,100 LCs, all of which involved major biliary complications and which were performed without the use of IOC, were reviewed.

METHODS

Data from 1,100 selected patients (728 females and 372 males) undergoing LC without the use of IOC from January 2003 to November 2011 were analyzed. One hundred and seventy LCs were performed by young surgeons during the learning curve, and 930 by surgeons with over 10 years of experience. Two techniques were used to create pneumoperitoneum: the Veress technique in 319 cases (29%) and the Hasson technique in the remaining 781 cases (71%). Patients with a suspicion of CBD stones were excluded from the study.

RESULTS

Two CBD injuries (0.18%) and three biliary leaks (0.27%) were detected among this group. Thirty-three patients (3%) needed conversion to open cholecystectomy. Missed CBD stones were reported in 4 cases (0.36%). There was no postoperative mortality.

CONCLUSION

LC can be performed safely without the use of IOC and with acceptable low rates of biliary complications. An accurate preoperative evaluation of clinical risk factors, precise operative procedures, and conversion to an open approach in doubtful cases are important measures which must be taken to prevent CBD injury.

Routine on-table cholangiography during cholecystectomy: a systematic review

INTRODUCTION

The aim of this review was to systemically analyse trials evaluating the efficacy of routine on-table cholangiography (R-OTC) versus no on-table cholangiography (N-OTC) in patients undergoing cholecystectomy.

METHODS

Randomised trials evaluating R-OTC versus N-OTC in patients undergoing cholecystectomy were selected and analysed.

RESULTS

Four trials (1 randomised controlled trial on open cholecystectomy and 3 on laparoscopic cholecystectomy) encompassing 860 patients undergoing cholecystectomy with and without R-OTC were retrieved. There were 427 patients in the R-OTC group and 433 patients in the N-OTC group. There was no significant heterogeneity among trials. Therefore, in the fixed effects model, N-OTC did not increase the risk (p=0.53) of common bile duct (CBD) injury, and it was associated with shorter operative time (p<0.00001) and fewer peri-operative complications (p<0.04). R-OTC was superior in terms of peri-operative CBD stone detection (p<0.006) and it reduced readmission (p<0.03) for retained CBD stones.

CONCLUSIONS

N-OTC is associated with shorter operative time and fewer peri-operative complications, and it is comparable to R-OTC in terms of CBD injury risk during cholecystectomy. R-OTC is helpful for peri-operative CBD stone detection and there is therefore reduced readmission for retained CBD stones. The N-OTC approach may be adopted routinely for patients undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomy providing there are no clinical, biochemical or radiological features suggestive of CBD stones. However, a major multicentre randomised controlled trial is required to validate this conclusion.

Visibility enhancement of common bile duct for laparoscopic cholecystectomy by vivid fiber-optic indication: a porcine experiment trial

Bile duct injury (BDI) is the most serious iatrogenic complication during laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC) and occurs easily in inexperienced surgeons since the position of common bile duct (CBD) and its related ductal junctions are hard to precisely identify in the hepatic anatomy during surgery. BDI can be devastating, leading to chronic morbidity, high mortality, and prolonged hospitalization. In addition, it is the most frequent injury resulting in litigation and the most likely injury associated with a successful medical malpractice claim against surgeons. This study introduces a novel method for conveniently and rapidly indicating the anatomical location of CBD during LC by the direct fiber-optic illumination of 532-nm diode-pumped solid state laser through a microstructured plastic optical fiber to avoid the wrong identification of CBD and the injury from mistakenly cutting the CBD that can lead to permanent and even life threatening consequences. Six porcine were used for preliminary intra-CBD illumination experiments via laparotomy and direct duodenal incision to insert the invented CBD illumination laser catheter with nonharmful but satisfactory visual optical density.

Virtual reality simulator training of laparoscopic cholecystectomies - a systematic review

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Simulators are widely used in occupations where practice in authentic environments would involve high human or economic risks. Surgical procedures can be simulated by increasingly complex and expensive techniques. This review gives an update on computer-based virtual reality (VR) simulators in training for laparoscopic cholecystectomies.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

From leading databases (Medline, Cochrane, Embase), randomised or controlled trials and the latest systematic reviews were systematically searched and reviewed. Twelve randomised trials involving simulators were identified and analysed, as well as four controlled studies. Furthermore, seven studies comparing black boxes and simulators were included.

RESULTS

The results indicated any kind of simulator training (black box, VR) to be beneficial at novice level. After VR training, novice surgeons seemed to be able to perform their first live cholecystectomies with fewer errors, and in one trial the positive effect remained during the first ten cholecystectomies. No clinical follow-up data were found. Optimal learning requires skills training to be conducted as part of a systematic training program. No data on the cost-benefit of simulators were found, the price of a VR simulator begins at EUR 60 000.

CONCLUSIONS

Theoretical background to learning and limited research data support the use of simulators in the early phases of surgical training. The cost of buying and using simulators is justified if the risk of injuries and complications to patients can be reduced. Developing surgical skills requires repeated training. In order to achieve optimal learning a validated training program is needed.

Intraoperative cholangiography in the laparoscopic cholecystectomy era: why are we still debating?

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy is now one of the most frequently performed abdominal surgical procedures in the world. The most common major complication is bile duct injury, which can have catastrophic repercussions for patients and it has been suggested that intraoperative cholangiography may reduce the rate of bile duct injury. Whether this procedure should be performed routinely is still an active subject of debate. We discuss the available evidence and likely implications for the future.

Relationship between the risk of bile duct injury during laparoscopic cholecystectomy and the types of preoperative magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatiocography (MRCP)

Backgrounds/Aims

Bile duct injury is one of the potential severe complications that can occur during laparoscopic cholecystectomy, which can be cause by anatomic variations in the confluence of the bile duct. Recently magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatiocography (MRCP) has become a helpful tool to detect bile duct variation on a preoperative basis and to prevent bile duct injury during laparoscopic cholecystectomy, as well other hepatic surgeries. This study aimed to clarify the types of bile duct on MRCP and to search for a method of avoiding injury during laparoscopic cholecystectomy.

Methods

Between January 2009 and December 2010, 277 patients underwent laparoscopic cholecystectomy with preoperative MRCP in our institution. On a retrospective basis, the bile ducts were categorized into 5 types according to the Couinaud classification system.

Results

The proportion of types was revealed type A (70.4%), type B (8.7%), type C (19.5%), type D (0.7%), type E (0%), and type F (0.7%), respectively. Bile duct injury occurred in 4 cases (1.4%) during laparoscopic cholecystectomy. In particular, the possibility of aberrant extrahepatic confluence (Type C and F) represented the highest risk of duct injury (OR=11.89 [CI: 1.21-116.53]).

Conclusions

Preoperative evaluation of the bile duct anatomy is important to avoid injury of duct during laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Specific types of bile duct variation should be considered as a high risk group for bile duct injury.

Does increased experience with laparoscopic cholecystectomy yield more complex bile duct injuries?

BACKGROUND

Two decades since the advent of laparoscopic cholecystectomy, the rate of bile duct injuries still remains higher than in the open cholecystectomy era.

METHODS

The rate and complexity of bile duct injuries was evaluated in 83,449 patients who underwent laparoscopic cholecystectomy between 1995 and 2008 in the Kaiser Permanente Northern California system. Fifty-six surgeons who performed a laparoscopic cholecystectomy in the past were surveyed to determine factors that predispose to bile duct injuries.

RESULTS

The overall incidence of bile duct injuries was .10%; 59.5% of the 84 injuries were cystic duct leaks. Incidence varied slightly from .10% (1995-1998) to .08% (1999-2003) and .12% (2004-2008). There was a trend toward more proximal injuries (injury <2 cm from the bifurcation: 14.3% to 44.4% to 50.0% of major injuries). The misinterpretation of anatomy was cited by 92.9% of surgeons as the primary cause of bile duct injuries; 70.9% cited a lack of experience as a contributing factor.

CONCLUSIONS

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy has an overall low risk of bile duct injuries; the rate remains constant, but injury complexity may have increased over time.

Perception of stiffness in laparoscopy - the fulcrum effect

We explored how the perception of stiffness can be distorted in Minimally Invasive Surgery. We combined a mechanical simulator with a haptic device, and implemented linear springs at the tip of the simulated laparoscopic device. To explore the influence of mechanical advantage on perception, we set different values of the ratio between internal and external length of the tool. We found that a nonsymmetrical ratio causes bias in the perceived stiffness when novice tangential probing is compared to radial probing. In contrast, haptic experts did not show similar perceptual bias.

Asymptomatic Gallstones (AsGS) - To Treat or Not to?

With ready availability of abdominal ultrasound, asymptomatic gallstones (AsGS) are being diagnosed with increasing frequency. Management decisions need to take into account the natural history of AsGS as well as the risks of cholecystectomy. Long-term follow up studies from the West have consistently shown that only a small minority of asymptomatic gallstones lead to development of symptoms or complications. Some sub-groups of patients (eg those with chronic hemolytic syndromes) have been shown to be at a higher risk of developing symptoms and complications and prophylactic cholecystectomy has been advised for them. Clear division of patients into low or high risk categories is still far from ideal and better identification of risk factors and risk stratification is needed. Overall, both open and laparoscopic cholecystectomy, are generally safe procedures. However, the incidence of bile duct injury (with all its serious consequences) continues to be higher with laparoscopic cholecystectomy and this should receive due consideration before offering prophylactic cholecystectomy to an asymptomatic patient who is not expected to receive any clinical benefit from it. Gallbladder cancer is rare in most of the developed world and prophylactic cholecystectomy has generally not been recommended to prevent development of GBC. Considering the wide geographical/ethnic variation in incidence of GBC across the world and the strong association of GBC with gallstones, it may not be prudent to extrapolate the results of studies of natural history of AsGS from one part of the world to another. Since northern India has one of the highest incidences of GBC in the world, it is imperative to have data on natural history of AsGS in patients from this area to allow formulation of precise guidelines for management of AsGs.

Complete transection of the main bile duct: minimally invasive treatment with an endoscopic-radiologic rendezvous

BACKGROUND

Complete transection of the common bile duct (CBD) is a dramatic and often extremely difficult-to-repair event after surgery. Abdominal biliary fluid collection or jaundice is the initial symptom, and ERCP is the determinant for diagnosis.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the safety and efficacy of a combined endoscopic-radiologic technique for the reconstruction of the CBD.

DESIGN

Single-center retrospective study.

SETTING

Tertiary-care center for biliary surgery.

PATIENTS

This study involved 22 patients with complete transection of the CBD after cholecystectomy.

INTERVENTION

A guidewire is passed in the subhepatic space through the endoscopic approach. A snare loop is advanced from the percutaneous entry site to catch the free end of the wire and then pulled outside the body: a percutaneous biliary-duodenal (PTBD) drainage is put in place. After a new contralateral PTBD, 4 plastic stents are inserted. The stents are removed endoscopically after 8 to 12 months.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS

Success of the rendezvous maneuver, patient recovery, and patient mortality.

RESULTS

After a mean follow-up period of 4 years, 16 patients are asymptomatic. Two patients are still under treatment, and 4 patients underwent surgery, as was the surgeon's choice.

LIMITATIONS

Single-center, retrospective study with a small population.

CONCLUSION

Interruption of the biliary tree does not represent an indication for an often-difficult surgical treatment, because the CBD is often thin in the presence of biliary peritonitis. However, the condition can be treated with a rendezvous technique. Surgery can be performed in elective conditions or completely avoided when conservative therapy is selected.

Visceral surgeon and intraoperative cholangiography: Survey about French Wild West surgeons

Cholecystectomy is one of the most common abdominal surgical procedures. No formal agreement has been reached about the routine practice of intraoperative cholangiography (IOC). The purpose of this survey was to describe the practices and the opinions of surgeons in western France. A survey was conducted among 300 visceral surgeons practicing in western France who were asked to respond to a questionnaire with objective and subjective items. One hundred forty-eight answers were interpretable. Among these 148 surgeons, 125 (83.4%) performed IOC routinely (IOCr group) and 23 (15.4%) selectively (IOCs group). Mean age of responding surgeons was 49.3 years. Groups IOCr and IOCs were not significantly different concerning surgical experience. Surgeons in both groups responded that IOC effectively screens for intraoperative bile duct injury. In our survey, routine practice of IOC was more common than reported by our English-speaking colleagues. The routine users responded that IOC can screen for intraoperative bile duct injury or choledocholithiasis. The selective users responded that IOC has its own morbidity. IOC is commonly performed in France during laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Although it may not be indispensable, it allows rapid screening for intraoperative bile duct injury. It also provides documented proof of good surgical practice in the event of a litigation claim after bile duct injury.

A novel classification system to address financial impact and referral decisions for bile duct injury in laparoscopic cholecystectomy

Purpose. The study was undertaken to evaluate a novel classification system developed to estimate financial cost of bile duct injury (BDI) and to aid in decision making for referral. Study Design. A retrospective review of patients referred for BDI was performed. Grade I injuries involve the duct of Luschka or accessory right hepatic ducts, grade II includes all other biliary injuries, and grade III includes all vasculobiliary injuries. Groups were compared using standard statistical methods. Results. There were 14 grade I, 74 grade II, and 20 grade III injuries. There was a significant difference in the cost and mortality of grade I ($12,457, 0%), grade II ($46,481, 1.4%), and grade III ($69,368, 15%, P = 0.002 and P = 0.030, resp.) injuries. Grade II and III injuries were significantly more likely to require surgical repair (OR 27.7, P < 0.001). Conclusion. We have presented a simple classification system that is able to accurately predict cost and need for surgical repair.

Therapeutic induction of hepatic atrophy for isolated injury of the right posterior sectoral duct following laparoscopic cholecystectomy

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy has resulted in various bile duct injuries. Treatment of these injuries is usually difficult and often leads to an intractable clinical course. We herein present a case of isolated right anterior sector (RAS) duct injury induced by laparoscopic cholecystectomy. The bile duct injury was successfully treated by hepatic atrophy induction. Imaging studies revealed that the RAS duct was severed, probably due to rare anatomical variations. Considering the difficulty in surgical reconstruction, atrophy induction of the involved hepatic parenchyma was attempted. This treatment consisted of embolization of the RAS portal branch to inhibit bile production, induction of heavy adhesion at the bile leak site to ensure percutaneous pigtail clamping, and sequential clamping and removal of pigtail catheters. This procedure took 3 months prior to pigtail catheter removal. She was free from other complications during the first 12 months and to date. She will be followed up for 5 years overall including surveillance for hepatobiliary complications. Although this therapeutic induction of atrophy approach is not universally applicable, it can be considered to be a feasible option in unique situations such as this one.

Biliary complications postlaparoscopic cholecystectomy: mechanism, preventive measures, and approach to management: a review

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy has emerged as a gold standard therapeutic option for the management of symptomatic cholelithiasis. However, adaptation of LC is associated with increased risk of complications, particularly bile duct injury ranging from 0.3 to 0.6%. Occurrence of BDI results in difficult reconstruction, prolonged hospitalization, and high risk of long-term complications. Therefore, more emphasis is placed on preventing these complications. In addition to adequate training, several techniques have been proposed to prevent bile duct injury including use of 30° scope, adequate delineation of structures in Calot's triangle (critical view), avoidance of diathermy close to common hepatic duct, and intraoperative cholangiogram, and to maintain a low threshold to conversion to open approach when uncertain. Management of Bile duct injury depends on the nature of injury, time of detection, and the expertise available, and would range from simple subhepatic drainage to Roux-en-Y hepaticojejunostomy particularly performed at specialised centers. This article based on the literature review aims to review the biliary complications following laparoscopic cholecystectomy with reference to its mechanism , preventive measures to be taken, and the management approach.

Complications of laparoscopic cholecystectomy: our experience in a district general hospital

BACKGROUND

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy is the procedure of choice for the treatment of symptomatic gallstone disease. Some of the associated complications are rare, but often serious. The purpose of this study is to present our data about the type and the incidence of these complications and our experience in their management, in a district hospital, during the last 8 years.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

A retrospective study was performed on 1009 patients, 229 males and 780 females, with age ranging from 19 to 84 years, who underwent laparoscopic cholecystectomy for symptomatic gallstone disease, during the period from January 2000 to January 2008. The procedure was performed urgently due to acute cholecystitis in 78 patients (7.73%).

RESULTS

Complications occurred in 96 (9.51%) patients. Bile leakage occurred in 15 patients (1.49%). One patient (0.10%) had a major bile duct injury (common bile duct transection). Bleeding occurred in 9 patients (0.89%), wound infection in 14 patients (1.39%), abdominal wall hematomas in 3 patients (0.30%), omental hematoma in 3 patients (0.30%), port site hernias in 3 patients (0.30%), subphrenic abscess in 1 patient (0.10%), subcapsular liver hematoma in 1 patient (0.10%), bowel injury in 5 patients (0.51%), postoperative acute pancreatitis in 4 patients (0.40%), respiratory and cardiovascular complications in 11 patients 1.09%). Finally in 14 patients (1.39%), the gallbladder was unintentionally opened during laparoscopic procedure and spillage of gallstones occurred into the peritoneal cavity. All patients had satisfactory results and no death occurred.

CONCLUSIONS

We conclude that laparoscopic cholecystectomy is a safe procedure, although it is associated with some serious complications. The most usual complication during laparoscopic cholecystectomy is bile leakage, which remains a significant cause of morbidity. Early identification and management of these complications will minimize a potentially devastating outcome.

Surgical competence today: what have we gained? What have we lost?

The complexity of modern surgical practice and the cognitive and technical overload to which trainees are subjected places practitioners and residents alike in jeopardy of developing areas of incompetence. Inadequate exposure to essential operations during residency forces trainees to seek further expertise in fellowships. At the same time, practice burdens increase stress levels on academic and community surgeons, resulting in a 30 to 40% burnout rate. Solutions include modification of restricted duty hours for residents and the institution of a simulation-based national surgical curriculum.

Bile duct injury after laparoscopic cholecystectomy in hospitals with and without surgical residency programs: is there a difference?

BACKGROUND

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC) is a common surgical procedure performed by surgical residents under the supervision of attending surgeons. There is a perception that performance of LC in a facility with a surgical training program provides a safer environment due to the presence of an assistant surgeon. The aim of this study was to compare the rate of bile duct injury, conversion, and mortality between hospitals with surgical residency programs (Group I) and hospitals without surgical training programs (Group II).

METHODS

ICD-9 diagnosis and procedure codes were used to extract and analyze LC procedures from the Florida State Inpatient Database from 1997 through 2006. Bile duct injury was indicated by the code for a biliary reconstruction procedure performed during the same admission. Hospitals with surgical training programs were identified by participation in the Electronic Residency Application Service (ERAS) and verified by contact with each hospital.

RESULTS

Between 1997 and 2006 there were 234,220 LCs identified, with 17,596 performed by Group I and 213,906 performed by Group II. Rate of BDI for Group I and Group II was 0.24 and 0.26%, respectively (p=0.71). There was a significant difference noted in emergency and urgent admission rates (65.6% for Group I vs. 77.2% for Group II; p<0.001) and conversion (9.1% for Group I vs. 7.5% for Group II; p<0.001). Mortality was 0.44% for Group I and 0.55% for Group II (p=0.060).

CONCLUSION

Our data suggest that bile duct injury rates are not influenced by the presence of a surgical residency program. In addition, there was no significant difference in mortality for LC at hospitals with surgical residencies when compared to hospitals without surgical residencies. A significant difference was noted in admission type and conversion rate but this did not appear to affect the rate of bile duct injury.

Bile duct injury and use of cholangiography during laparoscopic cholecystectomy

BACKGROUND

Bile duct injury (BDI) remains the most serious complication of laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC). A Swiss database was used to identify risk factors for BDI and to assess the effect of intraoperative cholangiography (IOC).

METHODS

Data for patients from 114 Swiss institutions who underwent LC for acute or chronic cholecystitis between 1995 and 2005 were used in univariable and logistic regression analyses.

RESULTS

In total 31 838 patients, mean(s.d.) age 54·4(15·9) years, were analysed. The incidence of BDI was 0·3 per cent (101 patients), which did not change over time (P = 0·560). Univariable analysis revealed that male patients had a higher risk of BDI (0·5 per cent versus 0·2 per cent in female patients; P = 0·001), as did patients whose operation lasted at least 150 min (1·1 per cent versus 0·1 per cent for operating time of less than 150 min; P < 0·001). Logistic regression confirmed male sex (odds ratio (OR) 1·89, 95 per cent confidence interval 1·27 to 2·81) and prolonged surgery (OR 12·60, 10·87 to 23·81) as independent risk factors. Comparison of groups with and without intraoperative cholangiography showed no difference in the incidence of BDI (both 0·3 per cent; P = 0·755) and BDIs missed during surgery (10 versus 8 per cent; P = 0·737).

CONCLUSION

Male sex and prolonged laparoscopic surgery are independent risk factors for BDI during LC. Frequent use of IOC does not seem to reduce BDI or the number of injuries missed during surgery.

Management of bile duct injury after laparoscopic cholecystectomy: a review

BACKGROUND

Bile duct injury following cholecystectomy is an iatrogenic catastrophe which is associated with significant perioperative morbidity and mortality, reduced long-term survival and quality of life, and high rates of subsequent litigation. The aim of this article was to review the management of bile duct injury after cholecystectomy.

METHODS

Medline and PubMed database search was undertaken to identify articles in English from 1970 to 2008 using the key words 'bile duct injury', 'cholecystectomy' and 'classification'. Additional papers were identified by a manual search of the references from the key articles. Case report was excluded.

RESULTS

Early recognition of bile duct injury is of paramount importance. Only 25%-32.4% of injuries are recognized during operation. The majority of patients present initially with non-specific symptoms. Management depends on the timing of recognition, the type, extent and level of the injury. Immediate recognition and repair are associated with improved outcome, and the minimum standard of care after recognition of bile duct injury is immediate referral to a surgeon experienced in bile duct injury repair. There is a growing body of literature supporting the importance of early referral to a tertiary care hospital which can provide a multidisciplinary approach to treat bile duct injury. Inadequate management may lead to severe complications.

CONCLUSIONS

None of the classification system is universally accepted as each has its own limitation. The optimal management depends on the timing of recognition of injury, the extent of bile duct injury, the patient's condition and the availability of experienced hepatobiliary surgeons.

Is there a role for endoscopic therapy as a definitive treatment for post-laparoscopic bile duct injuries?

BACKGROUND

Excellent results of surgical reconstruction of major bile duct injuries (BDIs) have been well-documented. Reports of successful definitive management of central bile duct leakage and stenoses have been reported infrequently. The aim of this study was to assess treatment and outcomes for operative and endoscopic treatment of BDI after laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC) and define the role of endoscopy in management.

STUDY DESIGN

All patients undergoing treatment for post-laparoscopic BDI from 1998 to 2007 at Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota were reviewed. Outcomes of surgical and endoscopic intervention were analyzed.

RESULTS

BDI was identified in 159 patients (mean age 51 years). Injury was recognized intraoperatively in 39 (25%) patients. Primary intervention was surgical in 59 (37%) and endoscopic in 100 (63%) patients. Class A BDIs (n = 77) were successfully treated endoscopically in 76 (99%) patients. Seven had class D BDIs; 4 were managed surgically, and 3 endoscopically. Of 66 patients with E1 to E4 BDI, 44 (67%) were initially managed surgically and 22 (33%) endoscopically. Thirteen of the latter 22 underwent sustained endoscopic therapy (median stent time 7 months), which was successful in 10 (77%). Four patients with E5 were managed surgically. Median follow-up was 45 months. Sixty-three patients underwent Roux-en-Y hepaticojejunostomy reconstruction at Mayo; 3 (5%) failed and required stenting. None required operative revision.

CONCLUSIONS

Endoscopic management of class A BDI has excellent outcomes. Although surgical management remains the preferred therapy, short-term endoscopic treatment for class E1 to E4 can optimize the patient and operative field for reconstruction. Prolonged stenting in select patients with E1 to E4 characterized by stenosis is successful in the majority.

Management of patients who return to the hospital with a bile leak after laparoscopic cholecystectomy

INTRODUCTION

Bile leaks after laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC) can be difficult to diagnose early. The aim of this study was to investigate the clinical features of minor bile leaks and to discuss how to manage patients who revisit the hospital with minor bile leaks after LC.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

From January 2001 to September 2007, 2219 LCs were performed at the Ajou University Medical Center. Twenty-four patients (1.0%) who presented with a bile leak or bile duct injury after a cholecystectomy were identified. The patients with minor bile duct injury were divided into two groups, depending on whether they revisited the hospital (group 2) or not (group 1) after LC.

RESULTS

Seventeen of 24 patients had minor bile leaks. The characteristics of patients in group 2 were long hospital stay, short operation time, and low frequency of indwelling surgical drains. Ten of 17 patients (58.8%) revisited the hospital at a mean of 7.0 +/- 2.7 days after the LC. However, 3 of 10 patients (30%) were discharged from the ER with atypical abdominal pain and returned to the hospital again within 5 days due to recurrent abdominal pain. There was a significant correlation between hospital stay and time to endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) (P = 0.008) and between hospital stay and PCD (P = 0.028).

CONCLUSIONS

Most minor bile leaks were managed by ERCP and/or percutaneous drainage. However, early diagnosis was difficult when patients revisited the hospital within 7 days after the LC. Therefore, early ERCP should be considered in these patients to diagnose the bile leak early and limit needed hospital stay.

Population perception of surgical safety and body image trauma: a plea for scarless surgery?

BACKGROUND

Laparoendoscopic single-site surgery (LESS) and natural orifice translumenal endoscopic surgery (NOTES) are prospected as the future of minimally invasive surgery. While scarless surgery (NOTES and LESS) is gaining increasing popularity, perception of these approaches should be investigated.

METHODS

An anonymous questionnaire describing laparoscopy, LESS, and NOTES was given to medical staff (n=120), paramedical staff (n=100), surgical patients (n=100), and the general population (n=100). The survey participants (median age, 37 years; range, 18-81 years) were queried about their expectations for surgical treatment and their approach preference.

RESULTS

The first concern of the survey responders was the risk of surgical complications (92%). When asked about the respective importance of surgical safety, cure, and cosmetics, cure was placed first by 74%, safety by 33%, and cosmetics by 3%. These results were not influenced by sex, age, prior surgery or endoscopy, or education. When operative risk was similar, 90% of the participants preferred a scarless approach (75% preferred LESS and 15% preferred NOTES) to laparoscopy. The scarless approach preference was significantly higher among the younger participants (age<40 years; p=0.026), whereas sex showed no influence. The LESS preference was significantly higher among patients and the general population (86%) than among medical (67%) and paramedical (70%) staffs (p<0.001). A decreasing trend of preference for LESS and NOTES was observed with increased procedural risks.

CONCLUSION

Although cure and safety remain the main concern, the population has a favorable perception of scarless surgery, even in the case of increased procedural risk, with LESS favored over NOTES. Such a popular adoption of scarless surgery should warrant the promotion of further research, technological innovations, and the establishment of surgeon training to improve its safety.

Single-incision laparoscopic surgery (SILS™) versus standard laparoscopic surgery: a comparison of performance using a surgical simulator

BACKGROUND

Single-incision laparoscopic surgery (SILS™) is a potentially less invasive approach than standard laparoscopy (LAP). However, SILS™ may not allow the same level of manual dexterity and technical performance compared to LAP. We compared the performance of standardized tasks from the Fundamentals of Laparoscopic Surgery (FLS) program using either the LAP or the SILS™ technique.

METHODS

Medical students, surgical residents, and attending physicians were recruited and divided into inexperienced (IE), laparoscopy-experienced (LE), and SILS™-experienced (SE) groups. Each subject performed standardized tasks from FLS, including peg transfer, pattern cutting, placement of ligating loop, and intracorporeal suturing using a standard three-port FLS box-trainer with standard laparoscopic instruments. For SILS™, the subjects used an FLS box-trainer modified to accept a SILS Port™ with two working ports for instruments and one port for a 30° 5-mm laparoscope. SILS™ tasks were performed with instruments capable of unilateral articulation. SILS™ suturing was performed both with and without an articulating EndoStitch™ device. Task scores, including cumulative laparoscopic FLS score (LS) and cumulative SILS™ FLS score (SS), were calculated using standard time and accuracy metrics.

RESULTS

There were 27 participants in the study. SS was inferior to LS in all groups. LS increased with experience level, but was similar between LE and SE groups. SS increased with experience level and was different among all groups. SILS™ suturing using the articulating suturing device was superior to the use of a modified needle driver technique.

CONCLUSIONS

SILS™ is more technically challenging than standard laparoscopic surgery. Using currently available SILS™ platforms and instruments, even surgeons with SILS™ experience are unable to match their overall LAP performance. Specialized training curricula should be developed for inexperienced surgeons who wish to perform SILS™.