An open trial of olanzapine for the treatment of delirium in hospitalized cancer patients

The assessment and management of delirium in cancer patients

Delirium remains the most common and distressing neuropsychiatric complication in patients with advanced cancer. Delirium causes significant distress to patients and their families, and continues to be underdiagnosed and undertreated. The most frequent, consistent, and, at the same time, reversible etiology is drug-induced delirium resulting from opioids and other psychoactive medications. The objective of this narrative review is to outline the causes of delirium in advanced cancer, especially drug-induced delirium, and the diagnosis and management of opioid-induced neurotoxicity. The early symptoms and signs of delirium and the use of delirium-specific assessment tools for routine delirium screening and monitoring in clinical practice are summarized. Finally, management options are reviewed, including pharmacological symptomatic management and also the provision of counseling support to both patients and their families to minimize distress.

Atypical antipsychotics in the treatment of delirium

Delirium is common in all medical settings. Atypical antipsychotics are increasingly used for the management of delirium symptomatology but their effectiveness has not been systematically studied. The aim of the present study was therefore to provide an up-to-date review on the use of atypical antipsychotics in the treatment of delirium. A search was conducted of the databases of MEDLINE, PsycINFO and EMBASE from 1997 to 2008 for English-language articles using the key words 'delirium' and the names of all the atypical antipsychotics. A total of 23 studies were used for this review. Fifteen of the studies were single-agent trials. Four studies were comparison trials, including one double-blind trial, and four studies were retrospective, including three comparison studies. All studies reported improvement of delirium symptomatology after the administration of atypical antipsychotics. No study included a placebo group. Other limitations included sample heterogeneity, small sample size, different rating scales for delirium, and lack of adequate controls. The improvement in delirium was observed within a few days after treatment initiation and the doses given were relatively low. Atypical antipsychotics were well tolerated, but safety was not evaluated systematically. Atypical antipsychotics appear to be effective and safe in symptomatic treatment of delirium but the evidence is limited and inconclusive. There are no double-blind, placebo-controlled studies assessing the efficacy and safety of these agents in delirium. Further research is needed with well-designed studies.

A classification system for delirium subtyping with the use of a commercial mobility monitor

The usefulness of motor subtypes of delirium is unclear due to inconsistency in subtyping methods and a lack of validation with objective measures of activity. The activity of 40 patients was measured over 24h with a commercial accelerometer-based activity monitor. Accelerometry data from patients with DSM-IV delirium that were readily divided into hyperactive, hypoactive and mixed motor subtypes, were used to create classification trees that were subsequently applied to the remaining cohort to define motoric subtypes. The classification trees used the periods of sitting/lying, standing, stepping and number of postural transitions as measured by the activity monitor as determining factors from which to classify the delirious cohort. The use of a classification system shows how delirium subtypes can be categorised in relation to overall activity and postural changes, which was one of the most discriminating measures examined. The classification system was also implemented to successfully define other patient motoric subtypes. Motor subtypes of delirium defined by observed ward behaviour differ in electronically measured activity levels.

Motor subtypes of delirium: past, present and future

Clinical subtyping of delirium according to motor-activity profile has considerable potential to account for the heterogeneity of this complex and multifactorial syndrome. Previous work has identified a range of clinically important differences between motor subtypes in relation to detection, causation, treatment experience and prognosis, but studies have been hampered by inconsistent methodology, especially in relation to definition of subtypes. This article considers research to date, including a number of recent studies that have attempted to address these issues and identify a means of achieving greater consistency in approaches to subtyping. Possibilities for future work are discussed and a research plan for the field is outlined.

Delirium in the intensive care unit

Delirium is a common manifestation of acute brain dysfunction in critically ill patients with prevalence as high as 75%. In the last years there has been a progressive increase of publications regarding intensive care (ICU) delirium, acknowledging its importance. The occurrence of delirium in ICU is related to more adverse outcomes including self-extubation and removal of catheters, prolonged hospitalization, increased costs, higher mortality, and potentially, long-term cognitive impairment. The pathophysiology explaining the processes subtending the development of delirium is still elusive, though several theories have been discussed. It is known that different risk factors are associated with delirium in the ICU. Patients in ICU frequently receive medications to treat pain and to ensure sedation, but an association between these drugs and delirium has been shown. Therefore, this pharmacological exposure should be modified to reduce the risk factors. Giving the multifactorial genesis of delirium, multicomponent interventions to prevent delirium developed in non-ICU settings can be adapted to critically ill patients with the purpose of reducing the incidence. When delirium is diagnosed the use of typical and atypical antipsychotics may be effective for its treatment. Future studies should evaluate target interventions to prevent delirium in the ICU.

Delirium in the acute care setting: characteristics, diagnosis and treatment

Delirium is a neurobehavioral syndrome caused by the transient disruption of normal neuronal activity secondary to systemic disturbances. It is also the most common psychiatric syndrome found in the general hospital setting, its prevalence surpassing better known psychiatric disorders. This article reviews the published literature on delirium and addresses the epidemiology, known etiologic factors, presentation and characteristics of delirium, while emphasizing what is known about treatment strategies and prevention. Given increasing evidence that delirium is not always reversible and the many sequelae associated with its development, physicians must do everything possible to prevent its occurrence or shorten its duration, by recognizing its symptoms early, correcting underlying contributing causes, and using treatment strategies proven to help recover functional status.

Delirium and its treatment

Delirium occurs at rates ranging from 10% to 30% of all hospital admissions. It is a negative prognostic indicator, often leading to longer hospital stays and higher mortality. The aetiology of delirium is multifactorial and many causes have been suggested. The stress-diathesis model, which posits an interaction between the underlying vulnerability and the nature of the precipitating factor, is useful in understanding delirium. Preventing delirium is the most effective strategy for reducing its frequency and complications. Environmental strategies are valuable but are often underutilized, while remedial treatment is usually aimed at specific symptoms of delirium. Antipsychotics are the mainstay of pharmacological treatment and have been shown to be effective in treating symptoms of both hyperactive and hypoactive delirium, as well as generally improving cognition. Haloperidol is considered to be first-line treatment as it can be administered via many routes, has fewer active metabolites, limited anticholinergic effects and has a lower propensity for sedative or hypotensive effects compared with many other antipsychotics. Potential benefits of atypical compared with typical antipsychotics include the lower propensity to cause over-sedation and movement disorder. Of the second-generation antipsychotics investigated in delirium, most data support the use of risperidone and olanzapine. Other drugs (e.g. aripiprazole, quetiapine, donepezil and flumazenil) have been evaluated but data are limited. Benzodiazepines are the drugs of choice (in addition to antipsychotics) for delirium that is not controlled with an antipsychotic (and can be used alone for the treatment of alcohol and sedative hypnotic withdrawal-related delirium). Lorazepam is the benzodiazepine of choice as it has a rapid onset and shorter duration of action, a low risk of accumulation, no major active metabolites and its bioavailability is more predictable when it is administered both orally and intramuscularly.

Drug treatment of delirium: past, present and future

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this review was to summarize and critically evaluate the current literature regarding the safety and efficacy of drug therapy in delirium. We also identified recent research developments and highlighted some ongoing clinical trials to explore future directions in drug treatment and prevention of delirium.

METHODS

We conducted a literature search of Medline, Embase, PsychInfo, and Cochrane Review databases, which included both prospective and retrospective clinical trials and case studies on delirium and drug therapy in adult patients up to March 2008. Abstracts from recent topical conferences were also reviewed. Ongoing delirium drug studies were identified via the WHO International Clinical Trials Registry Platform Search Portal, accessed March 12, 2008.

RESULTS

The evidence base for effective drug treatment of delirium is restricted by limitations in many of the studies conducted to date. However, there has been an increase in the quantity and quality of delirium drug studies in recent years; preliminary reports and ongoing studies add to this trend. Although efficacy rates between typical and atypical antipsychotic agents are similar, the latter are associated with fewer extrapyramidal side effects. Prophylactic interventions with antipsychotic and cholinesterase inhibitors in high-risk patients provide an opportunity to improve postoperative patient care. Alternative techniques and medication opportunities could be explored in attempts to minimize drug induced delirium potential.

CONCLUSIONS

Appropriate drug therapy should be considered part of systematic approaches to delirium treatment and prevention. There is a need for well-designed randomized, double-blind placebo-controlled trials investigating the drug management of various aspects of delirium, including delineating treatment by delirium subtype, dose ranging studies, and optimal duration of therapy.

Delirium phenomenology: what can we learn from the symptoms of delirium?

OBJECTIVES

This review focuses on phenomenological studies of delirium, including subsyndromal and prodromal concepts, and their relevance to other elements of clinical profile.

METHODS

A Medline search using the keywords delirium, phenomenology, and symptoms for new data articles published in English between 1998 and 2008 was utilized. The search was supplemented by additional material not identified by Medline but known to the authors.

RESULTS

Understanding of prodromal and subsyndromal concepts is still in its infancy. The characteristic profile can differentiate delirium from other neuropsychiatric disorders. Clinical (motoric) subtyping holds potential but more consistent methods are needed. Studies are almost entirely cross-sectional in design and generally lack comprehensive symptom assessment. Multiple assessment tools are available but are oriented towards hyperactive features and few have demonstrated ability to distinguish delirium from dementia. There is insufficient evidence linking specific phenomenology with etiology, pathophysiology, management, course, and outcome.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite the major advancements of the past decade in many aspects of delirium research, further phenomenological work is crucial to targeting studies of causation, pathophysiology, treatment, and prognosis. We identified eight key areas for future studies.

Defining delirium for the International Classification of Diseases, 11th Revision

OBJECTIVE

The development of ICD-11 provides an opportunity to update the description of delirium according to emerging data that have added to our understanding of this complex neuropsychiatric syndrome.

METHOD

Synthetic article based on published work considered by the authors to be relevant to the definition of delirium.

RESULTS

The current DSM-IV definition of delirium is preferred to the ICD-10 because of its greater inclusivity. Evidence does not support major changes in the principal components of present definitions but a number of key issues for the updated definition were identified. These include better account of non-cognitive features, more guidance for rating contextual diagnostic items, clearer definition regarding the interface with dementia, and accounting for illness severity, clinical subtypes and course.

CONCLUSION

Development of the ICD definition of delirium can allow for more targeted research and clinical effort.

Motor symptoms in 100 patients with delirium versus control subjects: comparison of subtyping methods

BACKGROUND

Different motor presentations of delirium may represent clinically meaningful subtypes.

OBJECTIVE

Authors sought to evaluate delirium phenomena.

METHOD

They used three non-validated delirium psychomotor subtype schemas, applied to a palliative-care population. Their unique items were merged to comprise a 30-item Delirium Motor Checklist (DMC) used to collect data, rate each schema, and determine subtype frequencies in 100 consecutive DSM-IV delirium patients and 52 medically-matched control subjects without delirium. The Delirium Rating Scale-Revised-98 (DRS-R98) assessed delirium severity, and subtype categorization using its two motor items was compared with the scale that used the psychomotor schema.

RESULTS

In delirium, motor disturbance was present in 100% by DMC versus 92% by DRS-R98 motor items; the DMC motor items also significantly distinguished delirium from control subjects. Motor subtype classification (hyperactive, hypoactive, mixed, and none) varied among the four methods, with low concordance across all four methods and 76% concordance for pairwise comparisons. The DRS-R-98 identified the most hypoactive delirium cases.

CONCLUSION

Motor disturbances are common in delirium, although whether they represent clinical subtypes is confounded by methodological issues. New motor subtyping methods are needed that are validated in other medical populations, use matched control subjects, and have higher sensitivity and specificity for pure motor features.

Delirium: where do we stand?

Clinicians are likely to encounter delirium frequently, particularly in inpatient and intensive care settings. However, delirium is underrecognized and undertreated because of its heterogeneous and fluctuating presentation and due to the limitations in resources and training in contemporary clinical settings. Translation of current knowledge about delirium into clinical practice may improve patient care and benefit public health economics. Hence, this review comprehensively discusses the phenomenology and pathophysiology of delirium and its presenting features, risk factors, differential diagnoses, assessment, prognosis, and treatment with antipsychotics; the goal is to facilitate better prevention, recognition, and treatment of delirium. Available research is reviewed, limitations of the research are discussed, and future directions for further delirium research are identified.

An update on the use of antipsychotics in the treatment of delirium

Objective:

Delirium is the most common neuropsychiatric complication of medical illness, a medical emergency that needs to be identified and treated vigorously. Delirium is too frequently underdiagnosed and untreated in the medical setting, which leads to increased morbidity and mortality, interference in the management of symptoms such as pain, an increased length of hospitalization, increased health care costs, and distress for patients and their caregivers (Inouye, 2006; Breitbart et al., 2002a, 2002b). In this article, we present an update of the use of antipsychotics in management of delirium based on the available literature and our own clinical experience.

Methods:

We reviewed the current literature on the role of antipsychotics in the management of delirium using standard computer-based search methods (e.g., PubMed).

Results:

Antipsychotic medications, including the new atypical antipsychotics, have been demonstrated to effectively manage a wide spectrum of the symptoms of delirium and are an essential component in the multimodal approach to managing delirium.

Significance of results:

The standard approach to managing delirium includes identification and elimination of factors contributing to the delirium in addition to pharmacological and nonpharmacological treatment interventions (Trzepacz et al., 1999). Newer atypical antipsychotics can play an important role in the management of the symptoms of delirium.

Medically assisted hydration for palliative care patients

BACKGROUND

Many palliative care patients have reduced oral intake during their illness. The management of this can include the provision of medically assisted hydration with the aim of prolonging the length of life of a patient, improving their quality of life, or both.

OBJECTIVES

To determine the effect of medically assisted hydration in palliative care patients on their quality and length of life.

SEARCH STRATEGY

Studies were identified from searching CENTRAL, MEDLINE (1966 to 2008), EMBASE (1980 to 2008), CINAHL, CANCERLIT, Caresearch, Dissertation abstracts, SCIENCE CITATION INDEX and the reference lists of all eligible studies, key textbooks, and previous systematic reviews. The date of the latest search was February 2008.

SELECTION CRITERIA

All relevant randomised controlled trials (RCTs) or prospective controlled studies of medically assisted hydration in palliative care patients.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Five relevant studies were identified. These included two RCTs (93 participants), and three prospective controlled trials (360 participants). These were assessed independently by two review authors for quality and validity. The small number of studies and the heterogeneity of the data meant that a quantitative analysis was not possible, so a description of the main findings was included only.

MAIN RESULTS

One study found that sedation and myoclonus (involuntary contractions of muscles) were improved more in the intervention group (28 - hydration, 23 - placebo). Another study found that dehydration was significantly higher in the non-hydration group, but that some fluid retention symptoms (pleural effusion, peripheral oedema and ascites) were significantly higher in the hydration group (59 - hydration group, 167 - non -hydration group). The other three studies did not show significant differences in outcomes between the two groups.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

There are insufficient good quality studies to make any recommendations for practice with regard to the use of medically assisted hydration in palliative care patients.

Delirium in hospitalised older persons: review

Delirium, a mental disorder that becomes established over a few hours or days, is characterised by fluctuating attention and cognitive states. This article reviews the disorder, which has all the features of an important geriatric syndrome: it appears mainly in persons older than 65 years of age, is closely linked with very prevalent diseases and complications arising in the elderly, and is the mode of presentation of many other diseases in this age group. We discuss diagnostic, clinical preventive and therapeutic aspects and analyse the most common risk and precipitating factors in our hospitalised patients from the viewpoint of clinical practice. Finally, we propose a scheme for the prevention and treatment of delirium.

Motion analysis in delirium: a wavelet based approach for sub classification

The usefulness of motor subtypes of delirium is unclear due to inconsistency in sub-typing methods and a lack of validation with objective measures of motor activity levels. Patients were studied with hyperactive, hypoactive, and mixed presentations of delirium. The patient's activity was determined with 24 hour accelerometer-based monitoring and a continuous wavelet transform was applied with a wavelet deemed suitable to distinguish between these motor presentations. The procedures were well tolerated and motor presentations were readily distinguished using the accelerometry-based measurements.

Delirium in the Hospitalized Patient: A Primer for the Pharmacist Clinician

As appreciation grows for the negative impact delirium has on the clinical outcome of hospitalized patients, pharmacists are becoming more involved in the identification and treatment of this common problem. Delirium has been shown to have a significant impact on such factors as morbidity, mortality, and hospital length of stay. The Confusion Assessment Method for the Intensive Care Unit (CAM-ICU) provides a simple assessment method for delirium that can be utilized by nonpsychiatrist personnel. While nonpharmacologic strategies are generally recommended to prevent and treat delirium, pharmacologic agents have also been investigated. This article will review causes of delirium, assessment with the CAM-ICU, and treatment options available to the pharmacist clinician.

A retrospective chart review of the antiemetic effectiveness of risperidone in refractory opioid-induced nausea and vomiting in advanced cancer patients

Nausea and vomiting are distressing symptoms in advanced cancer patients. The causes of nausea and vomiting are multifactorial. Among the causes is opioid therapy, the mainstay of cancer pain management. When nausea or other opioid side effects occur, it may hamper pain management and undermine the quality of life of cancer patients. Risperidone exerts an antiemetic effect in animals, but there has been no clinical report on its antiemetic activity. We conducted a retrospective chart review to examine whether risperidone is useful for opioid-induced nausea and vomiting in advanced cancer patients (n=20). Risperidone was given as doses of 1mg once a day. Complete response was observed in 50% of patients (10/20) for nausea and 64% (7/11) for vomiting. Sedation (n=2) was documented as an adverse effect. This observation suggests that risperidone can be an effective antiemetic drug in the treatment of refractory opioid-induced nausea and vomiting in advanced cancer patients.

Motion analysis in delirium: a novel method of clarifying motoric subtypes

The usefulness of motor subtypes of delirium is unclear due to inconsistency in subtyping methods and a lack of validation with objective measures of motor activity levels. We studied patients with hyperactive, hypoactive, and mixed presentations of delirium were studied with 24-h accelerometer-based monitoring. The procedures were well tolerated and motor presentations were readily distinguished using the accelerometer-based measurements. The system was capable of identifying static versus dynamic activity and the frequency of changes in posture. Electronic motion analysis concurs with observed gross movement and can distinguish motorically defined subtypes according to quantitative and qualitative aspects of movement.

Delirium: guidelines for general hospitals

OBJECTIVE

Delirium is highly prevalent in general hospitals but remains underrecognized and undertreated despite its association with increased morbidity, mortality, and health services utilization. To enhance its management, we developed guidelines covering all aspects, from risk factor identification to preventive, diagnostic, and therapeutic interventions in adult patients.

METHODS

Guidelines, systematic reviews, randomized controlled trials (RCT), and cohort studies were systematically searched and evaluated. Based on a synthesis of retrieved high-quality documents, recommendation items were submitted to a multidisciplinary expert panel. Experts scored the appropriateness of recommendation items, using an evidence-based, explicit, multidisciplinary panel approach. Each recommendation was graded according to this process' results.

RESULTS

Rated recommendations were mostly supported by a low level of evidence (1.3% RCT and systematic reviews, 14.3% nonrandomized trials vs. 84.4% observational studies or expert opinions). Nevertheless, 71.1% of recommendations were considered appropriate by the experts. Prevention of delirium and its nonpharmacological management should be fostered. Haloperidol remains the first-choice drug, whereas the role of atypical antipsychotics is still uncertain.

CONCLUSIONS

While many topics addressed in these guidelines have not yet been adequately studied, an explicit panel and evidence-based approach allowed the proposal of comprehensive recommendations for the prevention and management of delirium in general hospitals.

Life's Final Journey: The Oncology Nurse's Role

Despite advances in technology and science, many people diagnosed with cancer are likely to die from the disease. Because of the long-term relationships that oncology nurses develop with patients and their families during lengthy treatment periods, they are the most appropriate clinicians to provide care across the continuum and through the final journey. Care of patients in the final days of life requires a comprehensive knowledge of common syndromes, skillful assessment, and adept clinical management. Nurses cannot focus solely on the needs of patients; family members often are unaware of the dying process. Oncology nurses are uniquely qualified to provide education and support to families at the bedside witnessing the final days and hours of their loved ones. Finally, oncology nurses involved in the care of dying patients are at risk for burnout and need to provide care for their own needs to find balance between their professional and personal lives.

Distinguishing delirium and dementia

Delirium and dementia are syndromes with multiple cognitive impairments common to the elderly and to medically ill patients. While strides have been made in recognition of both delirium and dementia, underdiagnosis is common. Delirium and dementia cause great suffering in patients, families and caregivers. Both necessitate further advancement in assessment methods and treatment, especially when they overlap. Differentiating delirium and dementia requires recognizing that both may present with cognitive, behavioral and neuropsychiatric symptoms, but attentional disturbance and acute onset are cardinal discriminators in delirium. Superimposed delirium on dementia presents a particularly vexing problem in terms of recognition, treatment and prognosis. The pathophysiology of delirium results from diffuse cortical dysfunction or impairment in susceptible areas of the cortex and the reticular activating system. The pathophysiology of dementia is varied across dementias although several share histolological features. Treatment for both delirium and dementia includes antipsychotic medications and cholinesterase inhibitors, among others, although the disadvantages of pharmacological treatment are becoming better understood and demand caution. Nevertheless, there is an array of treatments and preventive strategies being explored for dementia, and to a lesser degree for delirium, that hold promise for the future.

Perospirone in the treatment of patients with delirium

Perospirone is a recently developed atypical antipsychotic with potent serotonin 5-HT2 and dopamine D2 antagonist activity. Other atypical antipsychotics including risperidone, quetiapine and olanzapine have been widely used for treatment, not only for schizophrenia symptoms but also for delirium, because of their low potential to induce extrapyramidal disturbances. In the present study the effectiveness and safety of perospirone in patients with delirium are described. Thirty-eight patients with DSM-IV delirium were given open-label perospirone. To evaluate the usefulness of perospirone, scores from 13 severity items of the Delirium Rating Scale-Revised-98 were assessed. Data were gathered from October 2003 to September 2004. Perospirone was effective in 86.8% (33/38) of patients, and the effect appeared within several days (5.1 +/- 4.9 days). The initial dose was 6.5 +/- 3.7 mg/day and maximum dose of perospirone was 10.0 +/- 5.3 mg/day. There were no serious adverse effects. However, increased fatigue (15.2%), sleepiness (6.1%), akathisia (3.0%) and a decline in blood pressure (3.0%) were observed. It is proposed that perospirone may be another safe and effective atypical antipsychotic drug for the treatment of delirium symptoms in hospitalized patients. This is a preliminary open trial, and further randomized double-blind placebo-controlled tests are needed.

Delirium in Older Adults With Cancer: Implications for Practice and Research

PURPOSE/OBJECTIVES

To provide a comprehensive review of the literature and existing evidence-based findings on delirium in older adults with cancer.

DATA SOURCES

Published articles, guidelines, and textbooks.

DATA SYNTHESIS

Although delirium generally is recognized as a common geriatric syndrome, a paucity of empirical evidence exists to guide early recognition and treatment of this sequelae of cancer and its treatment in older adults. Delirium probably is more prevalent than citations note because the phenomenon is under-recognized in clinical practice across varied settings of cancer care.

CONCLUSIONS

Extensive research is needed to formulate clinical guidelines to manage delirium. A focus on delirium in acute care and at the end of life precludes identification of this symptom in ambulatory care, where most cancer therapies are used. Particular emphasis should address the early recognition of prodromal signs of delirium to reduce symptom severity.

IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSING

Ongoing assessment opportunities and close proximity to patients' treatment experiences foster oncology nurses' mastery of this common exemplar of altered cognition in older adults with cancer. Increasing awareness of and knowledge delineating characteristics of delirium in older patients with cancer can promote early recognition, optimum treatment, and minimization of untoward consequences associated with the historically ignored example of symptom distress.

Systematic review of antipsychotics for the treatment of hospital-associated delirium in medically or surgically ill patients

OBJECTIVE

To determine which antipsychotic is associated with the greatest efficacy and safety when used for the pharmacotherapeutic management of delirium in medically or surgically ill patients.

DATA SOURCES

MEDLINE, Current Contents, Cumulative Index of Nursing and Allied Health Literature, PsycINFO, Biological Abstracts, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, and EMBASE databases (all to July 2006) were searched for trials evaluating the pharmacologic treatment of delirium in medically or surgically ill patients. The key terms used included delirium, agitation, or acute confusion, and antipsychotics, phenothiazine, butyrophenone, perphenazine, fluphenazine, clozapine, trifluorophenazine, loxapine, thioridazine, pimozide, molindone, haloperidol, methotrimeprazine, chlorpromazine, prochlorperazine, droperidol, risperidone, quetiapine, ziprasidone, amisulpride, or olanzapine.

STUDY SELECTION AND DATA EXTRACTION

Prospective, randomized, controlled trials comparing the clinical effects of antipsychotic therapy with placebo or comparing 2 antipsychotic treatments in an acute care setting were selected. Studies involving dementia-associated delirium, Alzheimer's disease-associated delirium, emergency department-associated acute agitation, acute brain trauma-associated agitation, or agitation secondary to underlying psychiatric afflictions such as depression or schizophrenia were excluded. All studies were evaluated independently by the 3 authors using a validated evaluation tool. Outcomes related to both efficacy and safety were collected. Four prospective trials were included in this systematic review.

DATA SYNTHESIS

Antipsychotic agents, either atypical or typical, were effective compared with baseline for the treatment of delirium in medically or surgically ill patients without underlying cognitive disorders. Oral haloperidol was associated with more frequent extrapyramidal side effects, but overall, all agents were well tolerated. Interpretation of the published evidence is limited by the small sample sizes, varied patient populations, and comparative agents of the studies reviewed.

CONCLUSIONS

The comparative studies evaluated here suggest that antipsychotic drugs are efficacious, when compared with baseline, and safe for the treatment of delirium. Haloperidol remains the most studied agent. Recommendation of one antipsychotic over another as a first-line pharmacologic intervention in the treatment of hospital-associated delirium is limited by the quality and quantity of data available. Better designed and larger studies evaluating the addition of antipsychotic agents to nonpharmacologic treatments are needed to measure the true effect of pharmacologic treatment.

Delirium subtype identification and the validation of the Delirium Rating Scale--Revised-98 (Dutch version) in hospitalized elderly patients

BACKGROUND

Delirium is the most common acute neuropsychiatric disorder in hospitalized elderly. The Dutch version of the Delirium Rating Scale-Revised-98 (DRS-R-98) appears to be a reliable method to classify delirium. The aim of this study was to determine the validity and reliability of the DRS-R-98 and to study clinical subtypes of delirium using the DRS-R-98.

METHODS

Patients received the Dutch version of the DRS-R-98, the Mini-Mental State Examination, the Confusion Assessment Method, and a clinical diagnosis of delirium according to DSM-IV criteria, and their relatives the Informant Questionnaire Cognitive Decline in the Elderly.

RESULTS

The DRS-R-98 validation cohort (n=65) consisted of 23 patients with delirium, 22 patients with dementia, and 20 non-psychiatric comparison patients. For the delirium subtype study, a second cohort comprising 54 delirious patients was investigated. Median DRS-R-98 scores significantly distinguished delirium from dementia and no psychiatric disorder. Inter-rater reliability (intra-class correlation 0.97) and internal consistency (Crohnbach's alpha 0.94) were high. Positive scores of DRS-R-98 item 4 (affect liability) and item 7 (motor agitation) predicted the presence of non-hypoactive delirium, with a specificity of 89% and a sensitivity of 57%.

CONCLUSION

The results show that the Dutch version of the DRS-R-98 is a valid and reliable measure of delirium severity and distinguishes patients with delirium from patients with dementia and comparison patients. Furthermore, the DRS-R-98 is able to exclude hypoactive delirium.

Aripiprazole in the Treatment of Delirium

Antipsychotic drugs are the primary treatment for symptoms of delirium, but their side effects can be problematic. Treatment of delirium with aripiprazole has yet to be evaluated. The authors report on 14 patients with delirium treated with aripiprazole. Twelve patients had a >or=50% reduction in Delirium Rating Scale, Revised-98 scores, and 13 showed improvement on Clinical Global Impression scale scores. There was a low rate of adverse side effects. Aripiprazole may be an appropriate first-line agent for the treatment of delirium because of its minimal effect on QTc interval, weight, lipids, and glucose levels. Controlled comparison studies should be performed to confirm this impression.

Psychologic issues in palliative care

As medical science progresses and the life spans of patients with serious illnesses increase, the process that leads to death is becoming more feared than death itself. This fear is particularly intense in technologically advanced cultures with access to advanced medical care. The lives of patients who previously would have died rapidly are now often extended. As a result, images of suffering, such as dying in isolation and experiencing great pain, often are at the forefront of concerns about those struggling with terminal illnesses. This article provides medical practitioners with an overview of the issues and symptoms common in terminal illness, to help them work most effectively with their mental health colleagues.

Delirium in Postacute and Long-term Care

Delirium is a classic geriatric syndrome that occurs commonly among the frail elders who make up many of the residents in postacute and long-term care facilities. The prevalence of the disorder in these settings may be increasing as a result of the pressure to reduce hospital length of stay. Clinicians often do not recognize when patients in their care are delirious, but simple and practical means exist to allow its diagnosis. Those who practice in long-term care must be knowledgeable about the risk factors for the disorder, as well as how to recognize, diagnose, prevent, and treat it.

Atypical antipsychotics in the management of delirium: a review of the empirical literature

OBJECTIVES

To review the existing literature of atypical antipsychotics in the treatment of delirium and make recommendations regarding their use in the treatment of delirium.

METHODS

I conducted a literature search in Pubmed, Psychlit, and Embase for studies using atypical antipsychotics in the treatment of delirium. In the absence of studies, case reports were used.

RESULTS

Overall 13 studies examined the use of risperidone, olanzapine, and quetiapine, two cases were reported about ziprasidone, and no publication was found using aripiprazole in the treatment of delirium. Among the existing studies were retrospective and prospective, open label studies in addition to one with a double blind design using risperidone. Risperidone, olanzapine, and quetiapine may be all similarly effective in the treatment of delirium, whereas there may be limited efficacy in the use of olanzapine in the hypoactive subtype of delirium in elderly populations, which may generalize to the other atypical antipsychotics. The use of atypical antipsychotics in the treatment of delirium is safe and carries a low burden of side effects.

SIGNIFICANCE OF RESULTS

Although atypical antipsychotics are widely used in the treatment of delirium, well-designed studies do not exist. Among the existing studies, stronger data supports the use of risperidone and olanzapine, and also quetiapine may be considered in the treatment of delirium. Recommendations are made based on the existing data and literature. The need for well-designed studies to validate the use of atypical antipsychotics in the treatment of delirium continues.

Sleep Disturbance in Supportive Care of Cancer: A Review

Insomnia constitutes a significant source of suffering for patients with cancer as they move through the course of treatment and advanced illness. Practicing physicians and caregivers are challenged to address this troubling symptom without the benefit of an extensive literature specific to this population. There is evidence to suggest that the routine clinical management of patients with cancer with insomnia is discordant with best practices documented in the available literature. This paper reviews the literature to characterize the sleep disturbances experienced by patients with cancer. The evaluation and management of insomnia in patients with cancer is reviewed, and a management plan based on available literature is proposed.

The management of behavioural and psychiatric symptoms in delirium

Delirium is a common and usually reversible syndrome occurring during a period of physical illness. It is most common in children and the elderly. The primary treatment of delirium focuses on the underlying cause, but behavioural and psychiatric symptoms are sometimes of sufficient severity to treat. If behavioural and environmental interventions are ineffective, psychotropic medication may be needed. This paper reviews the drugs commonly used in the management of behavioural and psychiatric symptoms in delirium, and suggests the need for further trials.

Hypoactive delirium: assessing the extent of the problem for inpatient specialist palliative care

Delirium is a common problem and cause of distress among patients with palliative care needs. The focus to date has been on managing the patient with agitated, hyperactive delirium, as these patients are very noticeable within the palliative care setting. This study in two parts shows that palliative care patients with agitated delirium are a minority of the total proportion of those with delirium. Part I: 100 acute admissions to a specialist palliative care unit were assessed and while 29% were found to have delirium, 86% of these had the hypoactive subtype of delirium. We also demonstrated a positive correlation between high ratings on a depression screening tool and delirium severity ratings. Part II: 8 specialist palliative care units took part in a point prevalence study of delirium over a 48-hour period. One hundred and nine patients were assessed and while 29.4% of these inpatients had delirium, 78% of them had the hypoactive subtype. Patients with hypoactive delirium may be much less noticeable or may be misdiagnosed as having depression or fatigue and the results of this study would advocate the routine use of delirium screening tools in all palliative care settings.

Management of psychiatric problems in critically ill patients

Critical care units have become essential elements in modern medicine. These units reflect the highest levels of scientific and technological advance in medicine. Within these units, however, lie significant psychiatric challenges for patients and staff. This article examines the identification and treatment of the most frequent psychiatric problems facing patients entering critical care units, including delirium, depression and anxiety. These conditions are important to address in order to decrease patient suffering and improve morbidity and mortality. The article also addresses some of the most common staff stressors encountered in working in these units. Managing these stressors makes the critical care unit a place where staff can flourish instead of burning out. Specific techniques may help the staff deal with the complex medical, psychological, and ethical issues found in these units in an empathic, compassionate, and well-balanced manner that allows ongoing work satisfaction.

The expert consensus guideline series. Treatment of behavioral emergencies 2005

OBJECTIVES

Due to inherent dangers and barriers to research in emergency settings, few data are available to guide clinicians about how best to manage behavioral emergencies. Key constructs such as agitation are poorly defined. This lack of empirical data led us to undertake a survey of expert opinion, results of which were published in the 2001 Expert Consensus Guidelines on the Treatment of Behavioral Emergencies. Several second-generation (atypical) antipsychotics (SGAs) are now available in new formulations for treating behavioral emergencies (e.g., intramuscular [i.m.] olanzapine and ziprasidone; rapidly dissolving tablets of olanzapine and risperidone). Critical questions face the field. The SGAs are significantly different from the FGAs and from each other and have not been studied in unselected patients as were the FGAs. Can the SGAs can be thought of as a class, do all antipsychotics have similar anti-agitation effects in different conditions, and, if equally effective, what limits might their safety profiles impose? Should antipsychotics be used more specifically to treat psychotic conditions, while benzodiazepines (BNZs) alone are used nonspecifically? Few data are available concerning combinations of SGAs and BNZs, and findings concerning the traditional combination of haloperidol plus a BNZ may not be relevant to combinations with SGAs. The culture is also evolving with more emphasis on patient involvement in treatment decisions. An international consensus has been developing that calming rather than sedation is the appropriate endpoint of behavioral emergency interventions. We undertook a new survey of expert opinion to update recommendations from the earlier survey.

METHOD

A written survey of 61 questions (1,020 options) was mailed to 50 experts in the field, 48 (96%) of whom completed it. The survey sought to define level of agitation at which emergency interventions are appropriate, scope of assessment depending on urgency and patients' ability to cooperate, guiding principles for selecting interventions, and appropriate physical and medication strategies at different levels of diagnostic confidence for a variety of provisional diagnoses and complicating conditions. A modified version of the RAND Corporation's 9-point scale for rating appropriateness of medical decisions was used to score most options. Consensus was defined as a non-random distribution of scores by chi-square "goodness-of-fit" test. We assigned a categorical rank (first line/preferred, second line/alternate, third line/usually inappropriate) to each option based on the 95% confidence interval around the mean. Ratings were used to develop guidelines for preferred strategies in key clinical situations. This study received financial support from multiple sponsors, with the panel kept blind to sponsorship to reduce possible bias. Medication ratings were based on responses of only those respondents with direct experience with each drug. In reporting practice patterns, the panel was asked to respond based on actual data rather than estimates.

RESULTS

The expert panel reached consensus on 78% of the options rated on the 9-point scale. The responses suggest that physicians can make provisional diagnoses with some confidence and that pharmacological and nonpharmacological interventions are selected differentially based on diagnosis and other salient demographic and medical features. BNZs are recommended when no data are available, when there is no specific treatment (e.g., personality disorder), or when they may have specific benefits (e.g., intoxication). No single SGA emerges as a nonspecific replacement for haloperidol; instead, different SGAs are preferred in various circumstances consistent with current evidence. To the degree that haloperidol is recommended, it is almost always in combination with a BNZ; haloperidol alone is preferred only in the medically compromised. In contrast, the SGAs are more often recommended for use alone, and the panel would avoid combining BNZs with some SGAs. Oral risperidone alone or combined with a BNZ receives strong support in a variety of situations. Oral olanzapine was rated very similarly to risperidone, with slightly higher ratings than risperidone in situations where it has been studied (e.g., schizophrenia, mania) and slightly lower ratings where it has not been studied or safety may be a concern; there was less support for combining oral olanzapine with a BNZ. For oral treatment of agitation related to schizophrenia or mania, olanzapine alone, risperidone alone or combined with a BNZ, and haloperidol plus a BNZ are first line, with strong support also for combining divalproex with the antipsychotic for presumed mania. Oral ziprasidone and quetiapine generally received similar second-line ratings in most situations. If a parenteral agent is needed, i.m. olanzapine alone received somewhat more support than i.m. ziprasidone alone; however, there was more support for i.m. ziprasidone alone or combined with a BNZ than for i.m. olanzapine plus a BNZ, probably reflecting safety concerns. For example, for a provisional diagnosis of schizophrenia, first-line parenteral options are i.m. olanzapine or ziprasidone alone or i.m. haloperidol or ziprasidone combined with a BNZ. Neither of the new parenteral formulations received as much support as traditional agents (i.m. BNZs, i.m. haloperidol) when no data are available or the diagnosis involves medical comorbidity or intoxication. When initial intervention with risperidone, ziprasidone, or haloperidol is unsuccessful, the panel recommended adding a BZD to the antipsychotic. However, when initial treatment with olanzapine or quetiapine is unsuccessful, increasing the dosage is recommended. Perphenazine was consistently rated second line and droperidol and chlorpromazine received third-line ratings throughout.

CONCLUSIONS

Within the limits of expert opinion and with the expectation that future research data will take precedence, these guidelines suggest that the SGAs are now preferred for agitation in the setting of primary psychiatric illnesses but that BNZs are preferred in other situations.

Relationship between plasma concentration levels of risperidone and clinical effects in the treatment of delirium

The present study aimed to examine the relationship between plasma concentration levels of risperidone and clinical effects in the treatment of delirium. We conducted a prospective, open-label, flexible-dose study of risperidone oral solution. Ten patients with delirium were assessed using Delirium Rating Scales. Plasma concentration levels of risperidone were measured 30 min after the first administration of a 0.5 mg dose. Two patients with high plasma levels had adverse effects and one patient with the lowest plasma level did not achieve remission; the remaining seven patients achieved remission without any adverse effects. A highly significant negative correlation was observed in these responders without adverse effects between the plasma levels and durations of treatment until remission (r=-0.861, P=0.0095). The plasma concentration level of risperidone at 30 min after the first 0.5 mg dose may be a favourable response predictor in the treatment of delirium. Further studies in larger samples are needed to verify this preliminary finding.

Clinical subtypes of delirium and their relevance for daily clinical practice: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Delirium is a disorder that besides four essential features consists of different combinations of symptoms. We reviewed the clinical classification of clusters of symptoms in two or three delirium subtypes. The possible implications of this subtype classification may be several. The investigation and exploration of clinical subtypes of delirium may provide information concerning the etiology, the pathogenesis, and the prognosis of delirium, but also may have therapeutic consequences.

METHODS

We searched several database for English-language articles. Selected articles were cross-checked for other relevant publications.

DATA SYNTHESIS AND CONCLUSION

We conducted a systematic review and retrieved ten clinical studies. The studies described in this review show different results, partly due to methodological problems and possibly by lack of a standard classification for delirium subtypes. According to the present literature a useful and reproducible method to classify (patterns of) symptoms in delirium subtypes seems to be the general rating of and division in to psychomotor subtypes. The Memorial Delirium Assessment Scale (MDAS) and the Dublin Delirium Assessment Scale (DAS) appear to be reliable methods, together with the new version of the Delirium Rating Scale (DRS-R-98).

Common symptoms in advanced cancer

The key points of this article are anorexia and cachexia are: A major cause of cancer deaths. Several drugs are available to treat anorexia and cachexia. Dyspnea in cancer usually is caused by several factors. Treatment consists of reversing underlying causes, empiric bronchodilators, cortico-steroids--and in the terminally ill patients-opioids, benzodiazepines,and chlorpromazine. Delirium is associated with advanced cancer. Empiric treatment with neuroleptics while evaluating for reversible causes is a reasonable approach to management. Nausea and vomiting are caused by extra-abdominal factors (drugs,electrolyte abnormalities, central nervous system metastases) or intra-abdominal factors (gastroparesis, ileus, gastric outlet obstruction, bowel obstruction). The pattern of nausea and vomiting differs depending upon whether the cause is extra- or intra-abdominal. Reversible causes should be sought and empiric metoclopramide or haloperidol should be initiated. Fatigue may be caused by anemia, depression, endocrine abnormalities,or electrolyte disturbances that should be treated before using empiric methylphenidate. Constipation should be treated with laxatives and stool softeners. Both should start with the first opioid dose.

Early detection and prevention of delirium in older patients with cancer

Delirium poses a common and multifactorial complication in older patients with cancer. Delirium independently contributes to poorer clinical outcomes and impedes communication between patients with cancer, their family and health care providers. Because of its clinical impact and potential reversibility, efforts for prevention, early recognition or prompt treatment are critical. However, nurses and other health care providers often fail to recognize delirium or misattribute its symptoms to dementia, depression or old age. Yet, failure to determine an individual's risk for delirium can initiate the cascade of negative events causing additional distress for patients, family and health care providers alike. Therefore, parameters for determining an individual's risk for delirium and guidelines for the routine and systematic assessment of cognitive functioning are provided to form a basis for the prompt and accurate diagnosis of delirium. Guidelines for the prevention and treatment of delirium are also discussed.

The delirium subtypes: A review of prevalence, phenomenology, pathophysiology, and treatment response

Delirium is a highly prevalent disease in the elderly and postoperative, cancer, and AIDS patients. However it is often misdiagnosed and mistreated. This may be partly due to the inconsistencies of the diagnosis itself. Delirium is best defined currently by an association of cognitive impairment and arousal disturbance. Three subtypes (hyperactive, hypoactive, mixed) receive a definition in the literature, but those definitions may vary from author to author according to the importance they give either to the motoric presentation of the delirium or to the arousal disturbance. Our aim is to point out the inconsistencies we found in the literature, but also to identify different paths that have been explored to solve them, that is, the suggestion to emphasize the arousal disturbances in defining the subtypes instead of the motoric presentations, which seem to be more fluctuating, and because of the fluctuating course of the disease to extend the observation over a period of time, which may improve the accuracy of the diagnosis. This is not without importance from a clinical standpoint. Subtypes of delirium may be explained by different pathophysiologic mechanisms, which remain partly unexplained, and may respond to specific treatments. There is a trend to isolate core symptoms (disorientation, cognitive deficits, sleep–wake cycle disturbance, disorganized thinking, and language abnormalities) so as to distinguish them from secondary symptoms that may be correlated with the different etiologies. Our contribution is also to challenge, with new data, the accepted belief that psychotic features are quite rare in the hypoactive type of delirium. We demonstrate that delusions and perceptual disturbances, although less frequent, are present in more than half of the patients with hypoactive delirium. The psychotic features are clearly correlated with a highly prevalent rate of patients', spouses', and caregivers' distress. The mixed subtype of delirium seems to have the worst prognosis, the hyperactive showing the best prognosis. The treatment of the agitated delirious patient is also more consensual. Haloperidol remains the gold standard in the treatment of delirium regardless of the clinical presentation, but the literature provides several alternatives that may prove more specific and have less adverse effects (atypical antipsychotics, psychostimulants, anesthetics).