20S Proteasome Assembly Is Orchestrated by Two Distinct Pairs of Chaperones in Yeast and in Mammals

Cooperativity in macromolecular assembly

The thermodynamic principle of cooperativity is used to drive the formation of specific macromolecular complexes during the assembly of a macromolecular machine. Understanding cooperativity provides insight into the mechanisms that govern assembly and disassembly of multicomponent complexes. Our understanding of assembly mechanisms is lagging considerably behind our understanding of the structure and function of these complexes. A significant challenge remains in tackling the thermodynamics and kinetics of the intermolecular interactions required for all cellular functions.

Unveiling novel RecO distant orthologues involved in homologous recombination

The generation of a RecA filament on single-stranded DNA is a critical step in homologous recombination. Two main pathways leading to the formation of the nucleofilament have been identified in bacteria, based on the protein complexes mediating RecA loading: RecBCD (AddAB) and RecFOR. Many bacterial species seem to lack some of the components involved in these complexes. The current annotation of the Helicobacter pylori genome suggests that this highly diverse bacterial pathogen has a reduced set of recombination mediator proteins. While it is now clear that homologous recombination plays a critical role in generating H. pylori diversity by allowing genomic DNA rearrangements and integration through transformation of exogenous DNA into the chromosome, no complete mediator complex is deduced from the sequence of its genome. Here we show by bioinformatics analysis the presence of a RecO remote orthologue that allowed the identification of a new set of RecO proteins present in all bacterial species where a RecR but not RecO was previously identified. HpRecO shares less than 15% identity with previously characterized homologues. Genetic dissection of recombination pathways shows that this novel RecO and the remote RecB homologue present in H. pylori are functional in repair and in RecA-dependent intrachromosomal recombination, defining two initiation pathways with little overlap. We found, however, that neither RecOR nor RecB contributes to transformation, suggesting the presence of a third, specialized, RecA-dependent pathway responsible for the integration of transforming DNA into the chromosome of this naturally competent bacteria. These results provide insight into the mechanisms that this successful pathogen uses to generate genetic diversity and adapt to changing environments and new hosts.

Homologous recombination plays an essential role in maintaining genomic integrity and in allowing genetic diversity within a population. In the case of bacteria, two main pathways for the initiation of recombination have been described. These pathways are defined by the protein complexes, present in the model systems Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis, that allow the loading of RecA onto single-stranded DNA to engage it in the annealing process. Depending on the DNA substrate, either RecFOR or RecBCD (AddAB) act as mediators for RecA filament formation. However, analysis of the completed bacterial genome sequences shows that in many species, not all of the components seem to be present. One such example is the human pathogen Helicobacter pylori, where homologous recombination is known to play a critical role in its high genetic diversity by facilitating intrachromosomal rearrangements and allowing integration of exogenous DNA into its genome. In this species, classical sequence comparisons have only identified RecR and RecB mediator genes. Here we show that H. pylori possesses a RecO functional orthologue. This finding allowed the identification of remote homologues of RecO in all those bacterial species where RecR but no RecO was previously found.

Dissecting beta-ring assembly pathway of the mammalian 20S proteasome

The 20S proteasome is the catalytic core of the 26S proteasome. It comprises four stacked rings of seven subunits each, alpha(1-7)beta(1-7)beta(1-7)alpha(1-7). Recent studies indicated that proteasome-specific chaperones and beta-subunit appendages assist in the formation of alpha-rings and dimerization of half-proteasomes, but the process involved in the assembly of beta-rings is poorly understood. Here, we clarify the mechanism of beta-ring formation on alpha-rings by characterizing assembly intermediates accumulated in cells depleted of each beta-subunit. Starting from beta2, incorporation of beta-subunits occurs in an orderly manner dependent on the propeptides of beta2 and beta5, and the C-terminal tail of beta2. Unexpectedly, hUmp1, a chaperone functioning at the final assembly step, is incorporated as early as beta2 and is required for the structural integrity of early assembly intermediates. We propose a model in which beta-ring formation is assisted by both intramolecular and extrinsic chaperones, whose roles are partially different between yeast and mammals.

Understanding proteasome assembly and regulation: importance to cardiovascular medicine

The cardiac proteasome is increasingly recognized as a complex, heterogeneous, and dynamic organelle contributing to the modulation of cardiac function in health and diseases. The emerging picture of the proteasome system reveals a highly regulated and organized molecular machine integrated into multiple biologic processes of the cell. Full appreciation of its cardiovascular relevance requires an understanding of its proteolytic function as well as its underlying regulatory mechanisms, of which assembly, stoichiometry, posttranslational modification, and the role of the associating partners are increasingly poignant.

A multimeric assembly factor controls the formation of alternative 20S proteasomes

The proteasome is the central regulatory protease of eukaryotic cells. Heteroheptameric alpha-subunit and beta-subunit rings stack to form the 20S proteasome, which associates with a 19S regulatory particle (RP). Here we show that two yeast proteins, Pba3 and Pba4, form a previously unidentified 20S proteasome-assembly chaperone. Pba3-Pba4 interacts genetically and physically with specific proteasomal alpha subunits, and loss of Pba3-Pba4 causes both a reduction and a remodeling of cellular proteasomes. Notably, mutant cells accumulate proteasomes in which a second copy of the alpha4 subunit replaces alpha3. 20S proteasome-assembly defects also are associated with altered RP assembly; this unexpected result suggests that the 20S proteasome can function as an RP-assembly factor in vivo. Our data demonstrate that Pba3-Pba4 orchestrates formation of a specific type of proteasome, the first example of a trans-acting factor that controls assembly of alternative proteasomal complexes.

The C-terminal Extension of the β7 Subunit and Activator Complexes Stabilize Nascent 20 S Proteasomes and Promote Their Maturation

The eukaryotic 20 S proteasome is formed by dimerization of two precursor complexes containing the maturation factor Ump1. Beta7/Pre4 is the only one of the 14 subunits forming the 20 S proteasome that is absent from these precursor complexes in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Increased expression of Pre4 leads to a reduction in the level of precursor complex, indicating that Pre4 incorporation into these complexes is rate-limiting for their dimerization. When we purified these precursor complexes, we observed co-purification of Blm10, a large protein known to attach to the alpha ring surface of proteasomes. In contrast to single mutants lacking either Blm10 or the C-terminal extension of Pre4, a mutant lacking both grew extremely poorly, accumulated very high levels of precursor complexes, and was impaired in beta subunit maturation. The effect of blm10Delta on proteasome biogenesis is modest, apparently because the 19 S regulatory particle is capable of substituting for Blm10, as long as precursor complex dimers are stabilized by the Pre4 C terminus. We found that a mutation (sen3/rpn2) affecting the Rpn2 subunit inhibits attachment of the 19 S activator to the 20 S particle or its precursors. Although the sen3 mutation alone had no apparent effect on precursor complex dimerization and active site maturation, the sen3 blm10 double mutant was impaired in these processes. Together these data demonstrate that Blm10 and the 19 S activator have a partially redundant function in stabilizing nascent 20 S proteasomes and in promoting their activation.

Tipping the delicate balance: defining how proteasome maturation affects the degradation of a substrate for autophagy and endoplasmic reticulum associated degradation (ERAD)

An increasing body of data links endoplasmic reticulum (ER) function to autophagy. Not surprisingly, then, some aberrant proteins in the ER can be destroyed either via ER associated degradation (ERAD), which is proteasome-mediated, or via autophagy. One such substrate is the "Z" variant of the alpha-1 protease inhibitor (A1Pi), variably known as A1Pi-Z or AT-Z ("anti-trypsin, Z variant"). The wild type protein is primarily synthesized in the liver and is secreted. In contrast, AT-Z, like other ERAD substrates, is retro-translocated from the ER and delivered to the proteasome. However, AT-Z can form high molecular weight polymers that are degraded via autophagy, and cells that accumulate AT-Z polymers ultimately succumb, which leads to liver disease. Therefore, identifying genes that have an impact AT-Z turnover represents an active area of research. To this end, a yeast expression system for AT-Z has proven valuable. For example, a recent study using this system indicates that the activity of a proteasome assembly chaperone (PAC) is critical for maximal AT-Z turnover, which suggests a new role for PACs. Because PACs are conserved, it will be critical to analyze whether these dedicated chaperones are implicated in other diseases associated with ERAD and autophagy.