Simultaneous DNA amplification and detection using a pH-sensing semiconductor system

Electrical detection of nucleic acid amplification using an on-chip quasi-reference electrode and a PVC REFET

Electrical detection of nucleic acid amplification through pH changes associated with nucleotide addition enables miniaturization, greater portability of testing apparatus, and reduced costs. However, current ion-sensitive field effect transistor methods for sensing nucleic acid amplification rely on establishing the fluid gate potential with a bulky, difficult to microfabricate reference electrode that limits the potential for massively parallel reaction detection. Here we demonstrate a novel method of utilizing a microfabricated solid-state quasi-reference electrode (QRE) paired with a pH-insensitive reference field effect transistor (REFET) for detection of real-time pH changes. The end result is a 0.18 μm, silicon-on-insulator, foundry-fabricated sensor that utilizes a platinum QRE to establish a pH-sensitive fluid gate potential and a PVC membrane REFET to enable pH detection of loop mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP). This technique is highly amendable to commercial scale-up, reduces the packaging and fabrication requirements for ISFET pH detection, and enables massively parallel droplet interrogation for applications, such as monitoring reaction progression in digital PCR.

From chip-in-a-lab to lab-on-a-chip: towards a single handheld electronic system for multiple application-specific lab-on-a-chip (ASLOC)

We present a portable, battery-operated and application-specific lab-on-a-chip (ASLOC) system that can be easily configured for a wide range of lab-on-a-chip applications. It is based on multiplexed electrical current detection that serves as the sensing system. We demonstrate different configurations to perform most detection schemes currently in use in LOC systems, including some of the most advanced such as nanowire-based biosensing, surface plasmon resonance sensing, electrochemical detection and real-time PCR. The complete system is controlled by a single chip and the collected information is stored in situ, with the option of transferring the data to an external display by using a USB interface. In addition to providing a framework for truly portable real-life developments of LOC systems, we envisage that this system will have a significant impact on education, especially since it can easily demonstrate the benefits of integrated microanalytical systems.

An empirical approach for quantifying loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) using Escherichia coli as a model system

Loop mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) is a highly efficient, selective and rapid DNA amplification technique for genetic screening of pathogens. However, despite its popularity, there is yet no mathematical model to quantify the outcome and no well-defined metric for comparing results that are available. LAMP is intrinsically complex and involves multiple pathways for gene replication, making fundamental modelling nearly intractable. To circumvent this difficulty, an alternate, empirical model is introduced that will allow one to extract a set of parameters from the concentration versus time curves. A simple recipe to deduce the time to positive, T_p - a parameter analogous to the threshold cycling time in polymerase chain reaction (PCR), is also provided. These parameters can be regarded as objective and unambiguous indicators of LAMP amplification. The model is exemplified on Escherichia coli strains by using the two gene fragments responsible for vero-toxin (VT) production and tested against VT-producing (O157 and O45) and non-VT producing (DH5 alpha) strains. Selective amplification of appropriate target sequences was made using well established LAMP primers and protocols, and the concentrations of the amplicons were measured using a Qubit 2.0 fluorometer at specific intervals of time. The data is fitted to a generalized logistic function. Apart from providing precise screening indicators, representing the data with a small set of numbers offers significant advantages. It facilitates comparisons of LAMP reactions independently of the sampling technique. It also eliminates subjectivity in interpretation, simplifies data analysis, and allows easy data archival, retrieval and statistical analysis for large sample populations. To our knowledge this work represents a first attempt to quantitatively model LAMP and offer a standard method that could pave the way towards high throughput automated screening.

Programmable ion-sensitive transistor interfaces. III. Design considerations, signal generation, and sensitivity enhancement

We report on factors that affect DNA hybridization detection using ion-sensitive field-effect transistors (ISFETs). Signal generation at the interface between the transistor and immobilized biomolecules is widely ascribed to unscreened molecular charges causing a shift in surface potential and hence the transistor output current. Traditionally, the interaction between DNA and the dielectric or metal sensing interface is modeled by treating the molecular layer as a sheet charge and the ionic profile with a Poisson-Boltzmann distribution. The surface potential under this scenario is described by the Graham equation. This approximation, however, often fails to explain large hybridization signals on the order of tens of mV. More realistic descriptions of the DNA-transistor interface which include factors such as ion permeation, exclusion, and packing constraints have been proposed with little or no corroboration against experimental findings. In this study, we examine such physical models by their assumptions, range of validity, and limitations. We compare simulations against experiments performed on electrolyte-oxide-semiconductor capacitors and foundry-ready floating-gate ISFETs. We find that with weakly charged interfaces (i.e., low intrinsic interface charge), pertinent to the surfaces used in this study, the best agreement between theory and experiment exists when ions are completely excluded from the DNA layer. The influence of various factors such as bulk pH, background salinity, chemical reactivity of surface groups, target molecule concentration, and surface coatings on signal generation is studied. Furthermore, in order to overcome Debye screening limited detection, we suggest two signal enhancement strategies. We first describe frequency domain biosensing, highlighting the ability to sort short DNA strands based on molecular length, and then describe DNA biosensing in multielectrolytes comprising trace amounts of higher-valency salt in a background of monovalent saline. Our study provides guidelines for optimized interface design, signal enhancement, and the interpretation of FET-based biosensor signals.

A robust ISFET pH-measuring front-end for chemical reaction monitoring

This paper presents a robust, low-power and compact ion-sensitive field-effect transistor (ISFET) sensing front-end for pH reaction monitoring using unmodified CMOS. Robustness is achieved by overcoming problems of DC offset due to trapped charge and transcoductance reduction due to capacitive division, which commonly exist with implementation of ISFETs in CMOS. Through direct feedback to the floating gate and a low-leakage switching scheme, all the unwanted factors are eliminated while the output is capable of tracking a pH reaction which occurs at the sensing surface. This is confirmed through measured results of multiple devices of different sensing areas, achieving a mean amplification of 1.28 over all fabricated devices and pH sensitivity of 42.1 mV/pH. The front-end is also capable of compensating for accumulated drift using the designed switching scheme by resetting the floating gate voltage. The circuit has been implemented in a commercially-available 0.35 μm CMOS technology achieving a combined chemical and electrical output RMS noise of 3.1 mV at a power consumption of 848.1 nW which is capable of detecting pH changes as small as 0.06 pH.

A new era of semiconductor genetics using ion-sensitive field-effect transistors: the gene-sensitive integrated cell

Semiconductor genetics is now disrupting the field of healthcare owing to the rapid parallelization and scaling of DNA sensing using ion-sensitive field-effect transistors (ISFETs) fabricated using commercial complementary metal -oxide semiconductor technology. The enabling concept of DNA reaction monitoring introduced by Toumazou has made this a reality and we are now seeing relentless scaling with Moore's law ultimately achieving the $100 genome. In this paper, we present the next evolution of this technology through the creation of the gene-sensitive integrated cell (GSIC) for label-free real-time analysis based on ISFETs. This device is derived from the traditional metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) and has electrical performance identical to that of a MOSFET in a standard semiconductor process, yet is capable of incorporating DNA reaction chemistries for applications in single nucleotide polymorphism microarrays and DNA sequencing. Just as application-specific integrated circuits, which are developed in much the same way, have shaped our consumer electronics industry and modern communications and memory technology, so, too, do GSICs based on a single underlying technology principle have the capacity to transform the life science and healthcare industries.

Point-of-care nucleic acid detection using nanotechnology

Recent developments in nanotechnology have led to significant advancements in point-of-care (POC) nucleic acid detection. The ability to sense DNA and RNA in a portable format leads to important applications for a range of settings, from on-site detection in the field to bedside diagnostics, in both developing and developed countries. We review recent innovations in three key process components for nucleic acid detection: sample preparation, target amplification, and read-out modalities. We discuss how the advancements realized by nanotechnology are making POC nucleic acid detection increasingly applicable for decentralized and accessible testing, in particular for the developing world.

Ion sensing (EIS) real-time quantitative monitorization of isothermal DNA amplification

Field-effect-based devices are becoming a basic structural element in a new generation of microbiosensors. Reliable molecular characterization of DNA and/or RNA is of paramount importance for disease diagnostics and to follow up alterations in gene expression profiles. The use of such devices for point-of-need diagnostics has been hindered by the need of standard or real-time PCR amplification procedures. The present work focuses on the development of a tantalum pentoxide (Ta2O5) based sensor for the real-time label free detection of DNA amplification via loop mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) allowing for quantitative analysis of the cMYC proto-oncogene. The strategy based on the field effect sensor was tested within a range of 1 × 10(8)-10(11) copies of target DNA, and a linear relationship between the log copy number of the initial template DNA and threshold time was observed allowing for a semi-quantitative analysis of DNA template. The concept offers many of the advantages of isothermal quantitative real-time DNA amplification in a label free approach and may pave the way to point-of-care quantitative molecular analysis focused on ease of use and low cost.