Gas Adsorption Sites in a Large-Pore Metal-Organic Framework

Cu2(BDC)2(BPY)–MOF: an efficient and reusable heterogeneous catalyst for the aerobic Chan–Lam coupling prepared via ball-milling strategy

Nanoporous Cu₂(BDC)₂(BPY)–MOF was used as efficient and reusable heterogeneous catalyst to effect the aerobic cross-coupling of aromatic amines and phenyl boronic acid (Chan–Lam Coupling).

An unprecedented Zn10O4 heteroadamantane cage containing anilido-pyridinate ligand and its activity for ring opening polymerization of l-lactide and ε-caprolactone

An unprecedented self-assembly anilido-pyridinate zinc oxide cluster was investigated for ring opening polymerization.

Spiers Memorial Lecture: : Progress and prospects of reticular chemistry

Reticular chemistry, the linking of molecular building units by strong bonds to make crystalline, extended structures such as metal–organic frameworks (MOFs), zeolitic imidazolate frameworks (ZIFs), and covalent organic frameworks (COFs), is currently one of the most rapidly expanding fields of science. In this contribution, we outline the origins of the field; the key intellectual and practical contributions, which have led to this expansion; and the new directions reticular chemistry is taking that are changing the way we think about making new materials and the manner with which we incorporate chemical information within structures to reach additional levels of functionality. This progress is described in the larger context of chemistry and unexplored, yet important, aspects of this field are presented.

Pitfalls in metal–organic framework crystallography: towards more accurate crystal structures

Proper handling of pore-occupying species and crystal twinning in structure determination of porous metal–organic frameworks by single crystal X-ray diffraction.

Controlling Thermal Expansion: A Metal-Organic Frameworks Route

Controlling thermal expansion is an important, not yet resolved, and challenging problem in materials research. A conceptual design is introduced here, for the first time, for the use of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) as platforms for controlling thermal expansion devices that can operate in the negative, zero, and positive expansion regimes. A detailed computer simulation study, based on molecular dynamics, is presented to support the targeted application. MOF-5 has been selected as model material, along with three molecules of similar size and known differences in terms of the nature of host-guest interactions. It has been shown that adsorbate molecules can control, in a colligative way, the thermal expansion of the solid, so that changing the adsorbate molecules induces the solid to display positive, zero, or negative thermal expansion. We analyze in depth the distortion mechanisms, beyond the ligand metal junction, to cover the ligand distortions, and the energetic and entropic effect on the thermo-structural behavior. We provide an unprecedented atomistic insight on the effect of adsorbates on the thermal expansion of MOFs as a basic tool toward controlling the thermal expansion.

Ethylene Epoxidation with Nitrous Oxide over Fe-BTC Metal-Organic Frameworks: A DFT Study

The epoxidation of ethylene with N₂ O over the metal-organic framework Fe-BTC (BTC=1,3,5-benzentricarboxylate) is investigated by means of density functional calculations. Two reaction paths for the production of ethylene oxide or acetaldehyde are systematically considered in order to assess the efficiency of Fe-BTC for the selective formation of ethylene oxide. The reaction starts with the decomposition of N₂ O to form an active surface oxygen atom on the Fe site of Fe-BTC, which subsequently reacts with an ethylene molecule to form an ethyleneoxy intermediate. This intermediate can then be selectively transformed either by 1,2-hydride shift into the undesired product acetaldehyde or into the desired product ethylene oxide by way of ring closure of the intermediate. The production of ethylene oxide requires an activation energy of 5.1 kcal mol^-1 , which is only about one-third of the activation energy of acetaldehyde formation (14.3 kcal mol^-1 ). The predicted reaction rate constants for the formation of ethylene oxide in the relevant temperature range are approximately 2-4 orders of magnitude higher than those for acetaldehyde. Altogether, the results suggest that Fe-BTC is a good candidate catalyst for the epoxidation of ethylene by molecular N₂ O.

Methane storage in nanoporous material at supercritical temperature over a wide range of pressures

The methane storage behavior in nanoporous material is significantly different from that of a bulk phase, and has a fundamental role in methane extraction from shale and its storage for vehicular applications. Here we show that the behavior and mechanisms of the methane storage are mainly dominated by the ratio of the interaction between methane molecules and nanopores walls to the methane intermolecular interaction, and a geometric constraint. By linking the macroscopic properties of the methane storage to the microscopic properties of a system of methane molecules-nanopores walls, we develop an equation of state for methane at supercritical temperature over a wide range of pressures. Molecular dynamic simulation data demonstrates that this equation is able to relate very well the methane storage behavior with each of the key physical parameters, including a pore size and shape and wall chemistry and roughness. Moreover, this equation only requires one fitted parameter, and is simple, reliable and powerful in application.

Safe P₄ reagent in a reusable porous coordination network

P4 generated from red phosphorus via the gas phase was trapped into an interactive pore of a porous coordination network, showing weak interactions which stabilize the reactive P4 in a pore. The network is reusable as a safe container of P4. Furthermore, we found a size dependence of the P4 trapping amount: for 100-50 μm crystal, 27% occupancy of P4; and for <20 μm crystal, ca. 93% occupancy of P4.

Metal-Organic Frameworks as Highly Active Electrocatalysts for High-Energy Density, Aqueous Zinc-Polyiodide Redox Flow Batteries

The new aqueous zinc-polyiodide redox flow battery (RFB) system with highly soluble active materials as well as ambipolar and bifunctional designs demonstrated significantly enhanced energy density, which shows great potential to reduce RFB cost. However, the poor kinetic reversibility and electrochemical activity of the redox reaction of I3(-)/I(-) couples on graphite felts (GFs) electrode can result in low energy efficiency. Two nanoporous metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), MIL-125-NH2 and UiO-66-CH3, that have high surface areas when introduced to GF surfaces accelerated the I3(-)/I(-) redox reaction. The flow cell with MOF-modified GFs serving as a positive electrode showed higher energy efficiency than the pristine GFs; increases of about 6.4% and 2.7% occurred at the current density of 30 mA/cm(2) for MIL-125-NH2 and UiO-66-CH3, respectively. Moreover, UiO-66-CH3 is more promising due to its excellent chemical stability in the weakly acidic electrolyte. This letter highlights a way for MOFs to be used in the field of RFBs.

Use of the PIXEL method to investigate gas adsorption in metal-organic frameworks

PIXEL has been used to perform calculations of adsorbate-adsorbent interaction energies between a range of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) and simple guest molecules. Interactions have been calculated for adsorption between MOF-5 and Ar, H2, and N2; Zn2(BDC)2(TED) (BDC = 1,4-benzenedicarboxylic acid, TED = triethylenediamine) and H2; and HKUST-1 and CO2. The locations of the adsorption sites and the calculated energies, which show differences in the Coulombic or dispersion characteristic of the interaction, compare favourably to experimental data and literature energy values calculated using density functional theory.

Intercalation of Coordinatively Unsaturated Fe(III) Ion within Interpenetrated Metal-Organic Framework MOF-5

Coordinatively unsaturated Fe(III) metal sites were successfully incorporated into the iconic MOF-5 framework. This new structure, Fe(III) -iMOF-5, is the first example of an interpenetrated MOF linked through intercalated metal ions. Structural characterization was performed with single-crystal and powder XRD, followed by extensive analysis by spectroscopic methods and solid-state NMR, which reveals the paramagnetic ion through its interaction with the framework. EPR and Mössbauer spectroscopy confirmed that the intercalated ions were indeed Fe(III) , whereas DFT calculations were employed to ascertain the unique pentacoordinate architecture around the Fe(III) ion. Interestingly, this is also the first crystallographic evidence of pentacoordinate Zn(II) within the MOF-5 SBU. This new MOF structure displays the potential for metal-site addition as a framework connector, thus creating further opportunity for the innovative development of new MOF materials.

Elucidating the mechanism responsible for anomalous thermal expansion in a metal-organic framework

The previously reported anisotropic thermal expansion of a three-dimensional metal-organic framework (MOF) is examined by means of theoretical calculations. Inspection of the 100, 190, 280 and 370 K single crystal X-ray diffraction (SCD) structures indicated a concerted change in the coordination sphere of the zinc centre leading to elongation of the coordination helix in the crystallographic c direction (the Zn-O(H)-Zn angle expands), while the largely unaltered ligands (the ZnLZn distance remains constant) are pulled closer together in the ab plane. This study develops and evaluates a mechanistic model at the DFT level of theory that reproduces the convergent expansion of the coordination helix of the material. The linear increase in energy calculated for extension of a model consisting of six zinc centres and truncated ligands compares favourably with results obtained from a periodic DFT evaluation of the SCD structures. It was also found that the anisotropic thermal expansion trend could be reproduced qualitatively by Molecular Dynamics (MD) simulations in the NPT ensemble.

Snapshots of a solid-state transformation: coexistence of three phases trapped in one crystal

Solvent extrusion leads to crystallographic–magnetic transition within a molecular complex via an intermediate that can be trapped and characterized.

Crystal-to-crystal transformations have been crucial in the understanding of solid-state processes, since these may be studied in detail by means of single crystal X-ray diffraction (SCXRD) techniques. The description of the mechanisms and potential intermediates of those processes remains very challenging. In fact, solid-state transient states have rarely been observed, at least to a sufficient level of detail. We have investigated the process of guest extrusion from the non-porous molecular material [Fe(bpp)(H₂L)](ClO₄)₂·1.5C₃H₆O (bpp = 2,6-bis(pyrazol-3-yl)pyridine; H₂L = 2,6-bis(5-(2-methoxyphenyl)-pyrazol-3-yl)pyridine; C₃H₆O = acetone), which occurs through ordered diffusion of acetone in a crystal-to-crystal manner, leading to dramatic structural changes. The slow kinetics of the transition allows thermal trapping of the system at various intermediate stages. The transiting single crystal can be then examined at these points through synchrotron SCXRD, offering a window upon the mechanism of the transformation at the molecular scale. These experiments have unveiled the development of an ordered intermediate phase, distinct from the initial and the final states, coexisting as the process advances with either of these two phases or, at a certain moment with both of them. The new intermediate phase has been structurally characterized in full detail by SCXRD, providing insights into the mechanism of this diffusion triggered solid-state phenomenon. The process has been also followed by calorimetry, optical microscopy, local Raman spectroscopy and powder X-ray diffraction. The discovery and description of an intermediate ordered state in a molecular solid-state transformation is of great interest and will help to understand the mechanistic details and reaction pathways underlying these transformations.

Enhanced performance in gas adsorption and Li ion batteries by docking Li+ in a crown ether-based metal–organic framework

Incorporating supramolecular recognition units, crown ether rings, into metal–organic frameworks enables the docking of metal ions through complexation for enhanced performance.

Ti-MIL-125-NH2 membrane grown on a TiO2 disc by combined microwave/ultrasonic heating: facile synthesis for catalytic application

A Ti-MIL125-NH₂ membrane with uniform crystals was prepared on a TiO₂ disc using microwave/ultrasonic irradiation, and used as a reusable catalyst for the Knoevenagel reaction.

Ionothermal synthesis, magnetic transformation and hydration–dehydration properties of Co(ii)-based coordination polymers

A series of low-coordinated coordination polymers obtained under an ionic liquid medium exhibit interesting hydration–dehydration behaviour and magnetic transformations.

Br2 induced oxidative pore modification of a porous coordination network

Iodinated pores of a Zn-based coordination network were modified by Br₂ oxidation to produce brominated pores in a polycrystalline-to-polycrystalline manner while maintaining the same network topology.

Neutral N-donor ligand based flexible metal–organic frameworks

This short review focuses on the flexibility aspect of MOFs based on neutral N-donor ligands with representative examples concerning the structural aspects and the subsequent properties induced by the reorganization of the frameworks.

High-temperature in situ crystallographic observation of reversible gas sorption in impermeable organic cages

Crystallographic observation of adsorbed gas molecules is a highly difficult task due to their rapid motion. Here, we report the in situ single-crystal and synchrotron powder X-ray observations of reversible CO2 sorption processes in an apparently nonporous organic crystal under varying pressures at high temperatures. The host material is formed by hydrogen bond network between 1,3,5-tris-(4-carboxyphenyl)benzene (H3BTB) and N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) and by π-π stacking between the H3BTB moieties. The material can be viewed as a well-ordered array of cages, which are tight packed with each other so that the cages are inaccessible from outside. Thus, the host is practically nonporous. Despite the absence of permanent pathways connecting the empty cages, they are permeable to CO2 at high temperatures due to thermally activated molecular gating, and the weakly confined CO2 molecules in the cages allow direct detection by in situ single-crystal X-ray diffraction at 323 K. Variable-temperature in situ synchrotron powder X-ray diffraction studies also show that the CO2 sorption is reversible and driven by temperature increase. Solid-state magic angle spinning NMR defines the interactions of CO2 with the organic framework and dynamic motion of CO2 in cages. The reversible sorption is attributed to the dynamic motion of the DMF molecules combined with the axial motions/angular fluctuations of CO2 (a series of transient opening/closing of compartments enabling CO2 molecule passage), as revealed from NMR and simulations. This temperature-driven transient molecular gating can store gaseous molecules in ordered arrays toward unique collective properties and release them for ready use.

A combined experimental and computational study of novel nanocage-based metal-organic frameworks for drug delivery

Three new metal organic frameworks (MOFs) with chemical formulae [(CH3)2NH2] [Sm3(L1)2(HCOO)2(DMF)2(H2O)]·2DMF·18H2O (1), [Cu2(L2)(H2O)2]·2.22DMA (2) and [Zn2(L1)(DMA)]·1.75DMA were synthesized and structurally characterized. 1 and 2 show a classical NbO-like topology and have two types of interconnected cages. 3 exhibits an uncommon zzz topology and has two types of interconnected cages. These MOFs can adsorb large amounts of the drug 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) and release it in a progressive way. 5-FU was incorporated into desolvated 1, 2 and 3 with loadings of 0.40, 0.42, and 0.45 g g(-1), respectively. The drug release rates were 72%, 96% and 79% of the drug after 96 hours in 1, 120 hours in 2 and 96 hours in 3, respectively. Grand Canonical Monte Carlo (GCMC) simulations were performed to investigate the molecular interactions during 5-FU adsorption to the three novel materials. The GCMC simulations reproduced the experimental trend with respect to the drug loading capacity of each material. They also provided a structural description of drug packing within the frameworks, helping to explain the load capacity and controlled release characteristics of the materials. 5-FU binding preferences to 1, 2 and 3 reflect the diversity in pore types, chemistry and sizes. The calculated drug load is more related to the molecular properties of accessible volume Vacc than to the pore size.

Dynamic DMF Binding in MOF-5 Enables the Formation of Metastable Cobalt-Substituted MOF-5 Analogues

Multinuclear solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance, mass spectrometry, first-principles molecular dynamics simulations, and other complementary evidence reveal that the coordination environment around the Zn(2+) ions in MOF-5, one of the most iconic materials among metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), is not rigid. The Zn(2+) ions bind solvent molecules, thereby increasing their coordination number, and dynamically dissociate from the framework itself. On average, one ion in each cluster has at least one coordinated N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) molecule, such that the formula of as-synthesized MOF-5 is defined as Zn4O(BDC)3(DMF) x (x = 1-2). Understanding the dynamic behavior of MOF-5 leads to a rational low-temperature cation exchange approach for the synthesis of metastable Zn4-x Co x O(terephthalate)3 (x > 1) materials, which have not been accessible through typical high-temperature solvothermal routes thus far.