Management of adrenal incidentalomas: European Society of Endocrinology Clinical Practice Guideline in collaboration with the European Network for the Study of Adrenal Tumors

PPARG dysregulation as a potential molecular target in adrenal Cushing's syndrome

Background

We performed a transcriptomic analysis of adrenal signaling pathways in various forms of endogenous Cushing's syndrome (CS) to define areas of dysregulated and druggable targets.

Methodology

Next-generation sequencing was performed on adrenal samples of patients with primary bilateral macronodular adrenal hyperplasia (PBMAH, n=10) and control adrenal samples (n=8). The validation groups included cortisol-producing adenoma (CPA, n=9) and samples from patients undergoing bilateral adrenalectomy for Cushing's disease (BADX-CD, n=8). In vivo findings were further characterized using three adrenocortical cell-lines (NCI-H295R, CU-ACC2, MUC1).

Results

Pathway mapping based on significant expression patterns identified PPARG (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma) pathway as the top hit. Quantitative PCR (QPCR) confirmed that PPARG (l2fc<-1.5) and related genes - FABP4 (l2fc<-5.5), PLIN1 (l2fc<-4.1) and ADIPOQ (l2fc<-3.3) - were significantly downregulated (p<0.005) in PBMAH. Significant downregulation of PPARG was also found in BADX-CD (l2fc<-1.9, p<0.0001) and CPA (l2fc<-1.4, p<0.0001). In vitro studies demonstrated that the PPARG activator rosiglitazone resulted in decreased cell viability in MUC1 and NCI-H295R (p<0.0001). There was also a significant reduction in the production of aldosterone, cortisol, and cortisone in NCI-H295R and in Dihydrotestosterone (DHT) in MUC1 (p<0.05), respectively.

Outcome

This therapeutic effect was independent of the actions of ACTH, postulating a promising application of PPARG activation in endogenous hypercortisolism.

Harnessing the power of nutritional antioxidants against adrenal hormone imbalance-associated oxidative stress

Oxidative stress, resulting from dysregulation in the secretion of adrenal hormones, represents a major concern in human health. The present review comprehensively examines various categories of endocrine dysregulation within the adrenal glands, encompassing glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, and androgens. Additionally, a comprehensive account of adrenal hormone disorders, including adrenal insufficiency, Cushing's syndrome, and adrenal tumors, is presented, with particular emphasis on their intricate association with oxidative stress. The review also delves into an examination of various nutritional antioxidants, namely vitamin C, vitamin E, carotenoids, selenium, zinc, polyphenols, coenzyme Q10, and probiotics, and elucidates their role in mitigating the adverse effects of oxidative stress arising from imbalances in adrenal hormone levels. In conclusion, harnessing the power of nutritional antioxidants has the potential to help with oxidative stress caused by an imbalance in adrenal hormones. This could lead to new research and therapeutic interventions.

Dexamethasone Suppression Testing in a Contemporary Cohort with Adrenal Incidentalomas in Two U.S. Integrated Healthcare Systems

Autonomous cortisol secretion (ACS) from an adrenal adenoma can increase the risk for comorbidities and mortality. The dexamethasone suppression test (DST) is the standard method to diagnose ACS. A multi-site, retrospective cohort of adults with diagnosed adrenal tumors was used to understand patient characteristics associated with DST completion and ACS. Time to DST completion was defined using the lab value and result date; follow-up time was from the adrenal adenoma diagnosis to the time of completion or censoring. ACS was defined by a DST > 1.8 µg/dL (50 nmol/L). The Cox proportional hazards regression model assessed associations between DST completion and patient characteristics. In patients completing a DST, a logistic regression model evaluated relationships between elevated ACS and covariates. We included 24,259 adults, with a mean age of 63.1 years, 48.1% obese, and 28.7% with a Charlson comorbidity index ≥ 4. Approximately 7% (n = 1768) completed a DST with a completion rate of 2.36 (95% CI 2.35, 2.37) per 100 person-years. Fully adjusted models reported that male sex and an increased Charlson comorbidity index were associated with a lower likelihood of DST completion. Current or former smoking status and an increased Charlson comorbidity index had higher odds of a DST > 1.8 μg/dL. In conclusion, clinical policies are needed to improve DST completion and the management of adrenal adenomas.

Inflammation-based scores in benign adrenocortical tumours are linked to the degree of cortisol excess: a retrospective single-centre study

OBJECTIVE

Benign adrenocortical tumours are diagnosed in ∼5% of adults and are associated with cortisol excess in 30%-50% of cases. Adrenal Cushing's syndrome (CS) is rare and leads to multiple haematological alterations. However, little is known about the effects of the much more frequent mild autonomous cortisol secretion (MACS) on immune function. The aim of this study was to evaluate the haematological alterations in benign adrenocortical tumours with different degrees of cortisol excess.

DESIGN AND METHODS

We investigated 375 patients: 215 with non-functioning adrenal tumours (NFAT), 138 with MACS, and 22 with CS. We evaluated the relationship between the degree of cortisol excess and full blood count as well as multiple inflammation-based scores, including the neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR), the lymphocyte-to-monocyte ratio (LMR), and the systemic immune-inflammation index (SII).

RESULTS

We observed a gradual and significant increase of leucocytes, neutrophils, and monocytes across the spectrum of cortisol excess, from NFAT over MACS to CS. Neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio and SII were significantly higher in both MACS and CS when compared to NFAT (P < .001 and P = .002 for NLR and P = .006 and P = .021 for SII, respectively). Conversely, LMR was lower in MACS and CS than in NFAT (P = .01 and <.001, respectively) but also significantly lower in CS compared to MACS (P = .007).

CONCLUSIONS

Neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio, SII, and LMR correlated with the degree of cortisol excess in benign adrenocortical tumours and were altered in patients with CS and MACS. These findings suggest that, similar to clinically overt CS, MACS also affects the immune function, potentially contributing to the MACS-associated comorbidities.

The Impact of the COVID Pandemic on Adrenal Surgery at an Academic Endocrine Surgery Unit

COVID-19 has severely affected the delivery of surgical care worldwide. The aim of the present study was to evaluate its impact on adrenal surgery at our academic endocrine center. All primary adrenal surgeries performed at the University Hospital of Cologne, Germany between 01.01.2019 and 31.07.2022 were included. This time frame was divided into pre-Covid (before 02/20), acute Covid (until 05/21), and post acute period (after 05/2021). Demographics, clinic-pathologic characteristics and treatment of these patients were analyzed. One hundred adrenalectomies were included: 22 before, 30 during, and 48 after the acute phase. The percentage of Conn adenomas and pheochromocytomas decreased during the acute phase (from 45.4 to 26.6% and from 18 to 10%, respectively) in favor of Cushing adenomas and suspicious tumors (from 4.5 to 20% and from 31.8 to 36.6%). About 90.9% of tumors resected for suspicion of malignancy were confirmed malignant by final histopathology, as opposed to 71.4% and 52.6% before and after the acute phase. The operative technique was similar during the three phases (63% retroperitoneoscopic, 34% laparoscopic and 2% open resections), with a significantly shorter operative time for retroperitoneoscopy (p=0.04). ICU monitoring demand increased during the acute phase (from 13.6% to 43.3%), according to the increase in Cushing adenomas and malignant tumors. During the acute phase of COVID-19 pandemic adrenal surgery for Cushing and malignant tumors increased, while a delay in pheochromocytoma surgery to the post acute phase was observed. The suspicion of malignancy formulated by the endocrine tumor board was accurate in 90.9% of cases.

Expanded indication for EUS-guided radiofrequency ablation: management of adrenal tumors

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

EUS-guided radiofrequency ablation (EUS-RFA) has been performed as an alternative to surgery for the treatment of pancreatic tumors. The promising results obtained using this procedure suggest that the indication for EUS-RFA could be expanded to the management of extrapancreatic tumors. Here, we evaluate the feasibility, efficacy, and safety of EUS-RFA in the treatment of left adrenal tumors.

METHODS

This single-center, prospective study was conducted at Asan Medical Center between January 2016 and November 2021. A total of 11 patients with left adrenal tumors were enrolled in the study. The technical success rate, treatment response, and adverse events were evaluated.

RESULTS

EUS-RFA was performed successfully in all patients (technical success rate, 100%). The indications for the procedure were an increase in tumor size (n = 8), and adrenal tumor with adrenal hormone excess (n = 3). After a median of 2 EUS-RFA sessions (range, 1-2), 73% of patients had a complete response, and 27% had a partial response. During follow-up, 5 patients experienced self-limiting mild abdominal pain; no moderate or severe adverse events were reported.

CONCLUSIONS

EUS-RFA showed high technical feasibility, clinical success, and an acceptable safety profile in the treatment of left adrenal tumors. In patients at high surgical risk, EUS-RFA can be considered as an alternative therapeutic modality to surgery for the treatment of left adrenal tumors.

Serum cortisol assay performance following the 1 mg overnight dexamethasone suppression test

BACKGROUND

The 1 mg overnight dexamethasone suppression test (ONDST) is recommended for the differential diagnosis of Cushing's syndrome and the investigation of adrenal incidentalomas. Despite documented variation in serum cortisol immunoassay performance, little has been published regarding its effect on the ONDST.

AIMS

Assess the performance of three immunoassay platforms (Roche Elecsys II, Abbott Alinity & Siemens Centaur) when compared to a liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method.

METHODS

Samples (n = 77) sent to the laboratory as part of an ONDST were retrieved prior to disposal, anonymized, and analysed on all platforms. Samples with factors impacting immunoassay analysis quality were excluded. Results were statistically compared to an LC-MS/MS method that previously demonstrated excellent comparability to a candidate reference method.

RESULTS

The Roche gen II showed a mean bias of -2.4 nmol/L and a Passing-Bablok fit of y = -0.9 + 0.97x. This was not affected by sex. The Abbott showed a mean bias -18.8 nmol/L, and a fit of y = -11.3 + 0.88x. This bias was -20.7 nmol/L in females versus -17.2 nmol/L in males. The Siemens had a mean bias of 2.3 nmol/L and a fit of y = 1.4 + 1.07x. This bias was 5.7 nmol/L in males versus -1.0 nmol/L in females.

CONCLUSIONS

Clinicians should be aware of the method-dependent variation that exists within serum cortisol analysis during the ONDSTs. Roche and Siemens aligned more closely with LC-MS/MS while the Abbot may cause a reduction in ONDST sensitivity. This data supports assay-specific cut-offs for the ONDST.

Laparoscopic Adrenalectomy: Tailoring Approaches for the Optimal Resection of Adrenal Tumors

In this study, we investigated the outcomes of laparoscopic approaches for adrenal tumor resection in 67 patients from a single center with a median age of 51 (range 40-79). Predominantly comprising women, the majority of patients were overweight or obese. Adrenal tumors larger than 6 cm were mostly treated using the laparoscopic transperitoneal method (p < 0.001). Our results revealed that patients subjected to the retroperitoneal approach exhibited quicker recovery, as evidenced by faster resumption of oral intake and ambulation, along with reduced intraoperative blood loss and shorter hospitalization (p-value < 0.05). In contrast, patients subjected to the transperitoneal approach experienced minimal complications, though not statistically significant, despite the technique's intricacy and slower recovery. These findings emphasize the significance of tailoring the surgical approach to individual patient characteristics, with particular emphasis on the tumor size. The choice between the retroperitoneal and transperitoneal methods should be informed by patient-specific attributes to optimize surgical outcomes. This study underscores the need for a comprehensive evaluation of factors such as tumor characteristics and postoperative recovery when determining the most suitable laparoscopic approach for adrenal tumor resection. Ultimately, the pursuit of individualized treatment strategies will contribute to improved patient outcomes in adrenal tumor surgery.

Comorbidities in mild autonomous cortisol secretion and the effect of treatment: systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

To assess (1) comorbidities associated with and (2) treatment strategies for patients with adrenal incidentalomas and mild autonomous cortisol secretion (MACS; > 1.8 µg/dL (>50 nmol/L) cortisol level cut-off following the 1 mg dexamethasone suppression test).

DESIGN

Systematic review and meta-analysis.

METHODS

Seven databases were searched up to July 14, 2022. Eligible studies were (randomized) trials, cohort studies, and cross-sectional studies assessing comorbidities potentially attributable to cortisol excess or mortality in patients with adrenal incidentaloma with or without MACS or the effects of conservative or surgical management of MACS. Random-effects meta-analysis was performed to estimate pooled proportions (with 95% CIs).

RESULTS

In 30 cross-sectional and 16 cohort studies (n = 17 156 patients in total), patients with MACS had a higher prevalence of diabetes (relative risk [RR] 1.44 [1.23-1.69]), hypertension (RR = 1.24 [1.16-1.32]), and dyslipidemia (RR = 1.23 [1.13-1.34]). All-cause mortality (adjusted for confounders) in patients with MACS, assessed in 4 studies (n = 5921), was increased (hazard ratio [HR] = 1.54 [1.27-1.81]). Nine observational studies (n = 856) and 2 randomized trials (n = 107) suggest an improvement in glucometabolic control (RR = 7.99 [2.95-21.90]), hypertension (RR = 8.75 [3.99-19.18]), and dyslipidemia (RR = 3.24 [1.19-8.82]) following adrenalectomy.

CONCLUSIONS

The present systematic review and meta-analysis highlight the relevance of MACS, since both cardiometabolic morbidities and mortality appeared to have increased in patients with MACS compared to patients with non-functioning incidentalomas. However, due to heterogeneous definitions, various outcomes, selective reporting, and missing data, the reported pooled estimates need to be interpreted with caution. The small number of patients in randomized trials prevents any strong conclusion on the causality between MACS and these comorbidities.

Robot-assisted adrenalectomy: Step-by-step technique and surgical outcomes at a high-volume robotic center

Objective

In the last years, robotic surgery was introduced in several different settings with good perioperative results. However, its role in the management of adrenal masses is still debated. In order to provide a contribution to this field, we described our step-by-step technique for robotic adrenalectomy (RA) and related modifications according to the type of adrenal mass treated.

Methods

We retrospectively analyzed 27 consecutive patients who underwent RA at Onze-Lieve-Vrouw hospital (Aalst, Belgium) between January 2009 and October 2022. Demographic, intra- and post-operative, and pathological data were retrieved from our prospectively maintained institutional database. Continuous variables are summarized as median and interquartile range (IQR). Categorical variables are reported as frequencies (percentages).

Results

Twenty-seven patients underwent RA were included in the study. Median age, body mass index, and Charlson's comorbidity index were 61 (IQR: 49-71) years, 26 (IQR: 24-29) kg/m2, and 2 (IQR: 0-3), respectively, and 16 (59.3%) patients were male. Median tumor size at computed tomography scan was 6.0 (IQR: 3.5-8.0) cm. Median operative time and blood loss were 105 (IQR: 82-120) min and 175 (IQR: 94-250) mL, respectively. No intraoperative complications were recorded. Overall postoperative complications rate was 11.1%, with a postoperative transfusion rate of 3.7%. A total of 10 (37.0%) patients harbored malignant adrenal masses. Among them, 3 (11.1%) had adrenocortical carcinoma, 6 (22.2%) secondary metastasis, and 1 (3.7%) malignant pheochromocytoma on final pathological exam. Only 1 (10.0%) patient had positive surgical margins.

Conclusion

We described our step-by-step technique for RA, which can be safely performed even in case of high challenging settings as malignant tumors, pheochromocytoma, and large masses. The standardization of perioperative protocol should be encouraged to maximize the outcomes of this complex surgical procedure.

Preoperative management of patients with ectopic Cushing's syndrome caused by ACTH-secreting pheochromocytoma: a case series and review of the literature

PURPOSE

ACTH-secreting pheochromocytoma is a rare cause of ectopic Cushing's syndrome, posing a clinical challenge for the severity of its clinical presentation, the difficulty in the prevention and the management of surgical complications. Sparse data are currently available about the optimal preoperative management of the severe symptoms due to both hypercortisolism and catecholamine excess, especially regarding the role and timing of medical therapies.

METHODS

We present a series of three patients with ACTH-secreting pheochromocytoma. A brief review of the available literature evidence on the preoperative management of this rare clinical condition is also conducted.

DISCUSSION

Patients with ACTH-secreting pheochromocytoma show peculiarities as compared to other forms of ACTH-dependent Cushing's syndrome, in terms of clinical presentation, preoperative management, and peri- and post-surgical short-term outcome. Pheochromocytoma should be ruled out in patient with ectopic CS of unknown origin because of the high anesthesiologic risk of proceeding to surgery with an undiagnosed pheochromocytoma. Proper preoperative recognition of complications of both hypercortisolism and catecholamines excess is the key to prevent the morbidity and mortality of an ACTH-producing pheochromocytoma. In these patients the absolute priority is to control excessive cortisol secretion since the rapid correction of the hypercortisolism is the most effective treatment of all the related comorbidities and it is mandatory to prevent severe complications during surgery, opting if necessary for a "block-and-replace" regimen.

CONCLUSION

Our additional cases and this literature review could provide a better understanding of the complications to be evaluated at diagnosis and some suggestions on their management during the preoperative period.

Deep learning approach for differentiating indeterminate adrenal masses using CT imaging

PURPOSE

Distinguishing stage 1-2 adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) and large, lipid poor adrenal adenoma (LPAA) via imaging is challenging due to overlapping imaging characteristics. This study investigated the ability of deep learning to distinguish ACC and LPAA on single time-point CT images.

METHODS

Retrospective cohort study from 1994 to 2022. Imaging studies of patients with adrenal masses who had available adequate CT studies and histology as the reference standard by method of adrenal biopsy and/or adrenalectomy were included as well as four patients with LPAA determined by stability or regression on follow-up imaging. Forty-eight (48) subjects with pathology-proven, stage 1-2 ACC and 43 subjects with adrenal adenoma >3 cm in size demonstrating a mean non-contrast CT attenuation > 20 Hounsfield Units centrally were included. We used annotated single time-point contrast-enhanced CT images of these adrenal masses as input to a 3D Densenet121 model for classifying as ACC or LPAA with five-fold cross-validation. For each fold, two checkpoints were reported, highest accuracy with highest sensitivity (accuracy focused) and highest sensitivity with the highest accuracy (sensitivity focused).

RESULTS

We trained a deep learning model (3D Densenet121) to predict ACC versus LPAA. The sensitivity-focused model achieved mean accuracy: 87.2% and mean sensitivity: 100%. The accuracy-focused model achieved mean accuracy: 91% and mean sensitivity: 96%.

CONCLUSION

Deep learning demonstrates promising results distinguishing between ACC and large LPAA using single time-point CT images. Before being widely adopted in clinical practice, multicentric and external validation are needed.

Older age impacts outcomes after adrenalectomy

BACKGROUND

Adrenalectomy is well tolerated with low complication rates. It is unclear if these excellent outcomes are consistent across all age groups.

METHODS

The 2015-2020 American College of Surgeons National Surgical Quality Improvement Program datasets were used. Patients who underwent adrenalectomy were identified and grouped based on age: ≤60, 61 to 70, 71 to 80, and >80 years. Patient characteristics, surgical indications, operative characteristics, and postoperative outcomes were compared between age groups. Primary outcome measures were mortality, morbidity, postoperative length of stay, non-home discharge, and unplanned readmission. Multivariable logistic regression analysis was performed.

RESULTS

Adrenalectomy was performed on 6,114 patients. Younger patients more frequently had surgery for non-functional benign neoplasms compared with older (55.7% vs 52.8% vs 45.9% vs 45.3%, for patients ≤60, 61 to 70, 71 to 80, and >80 years, respectively, P < .001), and less frequently had surgery for malignancy (8.8% vs 14.4% vs 22.5% vs 24.5%, P < .001). The median length of stay for patients ≤60 was 1 day compared with 2 days for patients 61-70, 71-80, and >80 (P < .001). The overall mortality rate was <1% and did not differ based on age (P = .18). Morbidity occurred less frequently in the younger age groups (7.3% vs 8.9% vs 11.2% vs 16.0%, P < .001) compared with older. Similar trends were seen for non-home discharge (1.4% vs 2.5% vs 4.8% vs 17.0%, P < .001). On multivariable analysis, patients aged >80 had a 2-fold increased likelihood of morbidity and a 9-fold increased likelihood of non-home discharge compared to patients aged ≤60.

CONCLUSION

Older age is associated with morbidity and non-home discharge after adrenalectomy. Knowledge of these risks is critical when counseling an aging surgical population.

Is the 1mg-dexamethasone suppression test a precise marker of glucocorticoid excess and cardiometabolic risk in patients with adrenal incidentalomas?

AIM

To analyze if the 1mg-dexamethasone suppression test (DST) is a reliable marker of glucocorticoid excess and cardiometabolic risk in patients with adrenal incidentalomas (AIs).

METHODS

Cross-sectional study of patients with nonfunctioning adrenal incidentalomas (NFAIs, defined by cortisol post-DST ≤ 1.8 µg/dL) and patients with autonomous cortisol secretion (ACS, defined by cortisol post-DST > 1.8 µg/Dl). The urinary steroid profile (USP) was determined by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. Both groups were matched by sex, age and body mass index.

RESULTS

Forty-nine patients with AIs (25 with ACS and 24 with NFAI) were included. As a whole, AIs showed a high excretion of β-cortolone, tetrahydro-11-deoxycortisol (THS), α-cortolone, α-cortol, tetrahydrocortisol (THF) and tetrahydrocortisone (THE). A positive yet modest correlation between post-DST cortisol and total excretion of glucocorticoid metabolites (r = 0.401, P = 0.004) was observed, with the stronger being observed with total THS (r = 0.548, P < 0.001) and THF (r = 0.441, P = 0.002). Some of the metabolites that were elevated in patients with AIs, were higher in patients with ACS-related comorbidities than in those without comorbidities. Post-DST cortisol showed a fair diagnostic accuracy for the prediction of ACS-related comorbidities (AUC 0.767 [95% CI 0.634-0.882]). However, post-DST diagnostic accuracy improved when combined with urinary cortisone, α-cortol, THS and serum DHEAS (0.853 [0.712‒0.954]).

CONCLUSION

The DST has a positive, but modest, correlation with urinary glucocorticoid excretion. Similarly, the diagnostic accuracy of the DST for the prediction of ACS-related comorbidities is only fair, but it may be improved if combined with the results of the USP and serum DHEAS.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

This is the first study aimed to evaluate if 1mg-dexamethasone suppression test (DST) is a reliable marker of glucocorticoid excess and cardiometabolic risk in patients with adrenal incidentalomas (AIs) and if urinary steroid profile was measured by GS-MS could improve such a prediction. We found a positive yet modest correlation between post-DST cortisol and total excretion of glucocorticoid metabolites, with the stronger being observed with total tetrahydro-11-deoxycortisol (THS) and tetrahydrocortisol. Post-DST cortisol showed a fair diagnostic accuracy for the prediction of ACS-related comorbidities (AUC 0.767). However, post-DST diagnostic accuracy improved when combined with urinary cortisone, α-cortol, THS and serum DHEAS (0.853).

Utilizing dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate and its ratio for detecting mild autonomous cortisol excess in patients with adrenal incidentaloma

Subclinical Cushing syndrome is a condition of mild autonomous cortisol excess (MACE) that lacks typical features of Cushing syndrome but is associated with many complications. It represents a common hormonal dysfunction among patients with adrenal incidentaloma (AI), defined as unexpected masses or lesions found in the adrenal glands during radiological examinations of the chest or abdomen unrelated to adrenal gland assessment. The study evaluated the accuracy of dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S) and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate ratio (calculated by dividing the DHEA-S value by the age and sex-adjusted normal range of DHEA-S) in detecting MACE in AI patients. A cross-sectional study was conducted from April 2021 to July 2022 at the Faiha Specialized Diabetes, Endocrine, and Metabolism Centre (FDEMC) in Basrah, southern Iraq, involving 38 AI patients. Comprehensive laboratory and radiological evaluations were performed, including tests for adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), renin, aldosterone, aldosterone/renin ratio (ARR), metanephrine, normetanephrine, cortisol, DHEA-S, and the 1-mg overnight dexamethasone suppression test (1-mg ONDST). Among the AI patients, 14% had MACE. Both DHEA-S ≤75 µg/dL and a DHEA-S ratio ≤1.7 exhibited a sensitivity of 80% each, with specificities of 73.3% and 76.6%, respectively, in diagnosing MACE in individuals aged ≤65 years. The negative predictive values were 95.7% and 95.8%, respectively. Low DHEA-S and DHEA-S ratio had high sensitivity and specificity in predicting MACE among AI patients aged ≤65 years, with strong negative predictive value.

Adrenal Incidentalomas and Other Endocrine-Related Adenomas: How Much Does Cortisol Secretion Matter?

Background: Adrenal incidentalomas (AI) are frequent findings in clinical practice. About 40% of AIs are associated with hypercortisolism of variable severity. Although mild autonomous cortisol secretion (MACS) has been associated with the impaired clinical outcome of several diseases, its effect on the development of benign neoplasms is unknown. Aim: To compare the prevalence of adenomas (thyroid, parathyroid, pituitary and other locations) in patients with nonfunctioning AIs (NFAIs) and MACS. Methods: A multicenter, retrospective study of patients with AIs evaluated in four tertiary hospitals was performed. Results: A total of 923 patients were included. Most patients were male (53.6%), with a mean age at diagnosis of 62.4 ± 11.13 years; 21.7% presented with bilateral AIs. MACS was observed in 29.9% (n = 276) of patients, while 69.9% (n = 647) were NFAIs. Adenomas in locations other than the adrenal gland were observed in 36% of the studied population, with a similar distribution in patients with MACS and NFAIs (33% vs. 32%; p > 0.05). There were no statistically significant differences in the prevalence of pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid or other endocrine-related adenomas between both groups, but the prevalence of metabolic comorbidities and mortality was increased in patients with MACS, specifically in patients with thyroid and other endocrine-related adenomas (p < 0.05). Conclusions: Adenomas in locations other than the adrenal glands occur in one third of patients with AIs. Mild autonomous hypercortisolism does not affect the prevalence of other endocrine-related adenomas but is associated with increased metabolic comorbidities and mortality, especially in patients with thyroid adenomas and adenomas in other locations.

Image-Guided Precision Medicine in the Diagnosis and Treatment of Pheochromocytomas and Paragangliomas

In this comprehensive review, we aimed to discuss the current state-of-the-art medical imaging for pheochromocytomas and paragangliomas (PPGLs) diagnosis and treatment. Despite major medical improvements, PPGLs, as with other neuroendocrine tumors (NETs), leave clinicians facing several challenges; their inherent particularities and their diagnosis and treatment pose several challenges for clinicians due to their inherent complexity, and they require management by multidisciplinary teams. The conventional concepts of medical imaging are currently undergoing a paradigm shift, thanks to developments in radiomic and metabolic imaging. However, despite active research, clinical relevance of these new parameters remains unclear, and further multicentric studies are needed in order to validate and increase widespread use and integration in clinical routine. Use of AI in PPGLs may detect changes in tumor phenotype that precede classical medical imaging biomarkers, such as shape, texture, and size. Since PPGLs are rare, slow-growing, and heterogeneous, multicentric collaboration will be necessary to have enough data in order to develop new PPGL biomarkers. In this nonsystematic review, our aim is to present an exhaustive pedagogical tool based on real-world cases, dedicated to physicians dealing with PPGLs, augmented by perspectives of artificial intelligence and big data.

New Findings on Presentation and Outcome of Patients With Adrenocortical Cancer: Results From a National Cohort Study

CONTEXT

Because of the rarity of adrenocortical cancer (ACC), only a few population-based studies are available, and they reported limited details in the characterization of patients and their treatment.

OBJECTIVE

To describe in a nationwide cohort the presentation of patients with ACC, treatment strategies, and potential prognostic factors.

METHODS

Retrospective analysis of 512 patients with ACC, diagnosed in 12 referral centers in Italy from January 1990 to June 2018.

RESULTS

ACC diagnosed as incidentalomas accounted for overall 38.1% of cases, with a frequency that increases with age and with less aggressive pathological features than symptomatic tumors. Women (60.2%) were younger than men and had smaller tumors, which more frequently secreted hormones. Surgery was mainly done with an open approach (72%), and after surgical resection, 62.7% of patients started adjuvant mitotane therapy. Recurrence after tumor resection occurred in 56.2% of patients. In patients with localized disease, cortisol secretion, ENSAT stage III, Ki67%, and Weiss score were associated with an increased risk of recurrence, whereas margin-free resection, open surgery, and adjuvant mitotane treatment were associated with reduced risk. Death occurred in 38.1% of patients and recurrence-free survival (RFS) predicted overall survival (OS). In localized disease, age, cortisol secretion, Ki67%, ENSAT stage III, and recurrence were associated with increased risk of mortality. ACCs presenting as adrenal incidentalomas showed prolonged RFS and OS.

CONCLUSION

Our study shows that ACC is a sex-related disease and demonstrates that an incidental presentation is associated with a better outcome. Given the correlation between RFS and OS, RFS may be used as a surrogate endpoint in clinical studies.

The Utility of Salivary Cortisone in the Overnight Dexamethasone Suppression Test in Adrenal Incidentalomas

CONTEXT

Guidelines recommend the assessment of cortisol secretion in patients with adrenal incidentalomas (AI) using the overnight dexamethasone suppression test (ONDST). This requires attendance at a health care facility and venepuncture. Alternatively, the ONDST can be done by measuring salivary cortisol and cortisone, which can be collected at home.

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to assess the utility of these measurements in patients with AI.

METHODS

A retrospective analysis of data from 173 patients with AI who underwent an ONDST and salivary cortisol/cortisone diurnal studies. Serum and salivary cortisol and salivary cortisone were collected at 09:00, late night, and at 09:00 the following morning after dexamethasone. Dexamethasone levels were measured in the postdexamethasone samples. Serum and salivary samples were analyzed with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry.

RESULTS

We identified a strong correlation between salivary cortisone and serum cortisol after 1 mg of dexamethasone (r = 0.95). Stepwise multivariate regression showed that postdexamethasone salivary cortisone, baseline serum cortisol, salivary cortisone suppression (predexamethasone/postdexamethasone ratio), and sex were the only significant or near-significant independent variables. Performance of predictive indices using these 4 parameters (sensitivity = 88.5%, specificity = 91.2%; kappa 0.80) and postdexamethasone salivary cortisone alone (sensitivity = 85.3%, specificity = 91.7%; kappa 0.77) were comparable when used to predict an ONDST serum cortisol of ≤50 nmol/L. No correlation was observed with any of the other measured parameters.

CONCLUSION

In AI patients, after dexamethasone, salivary cortisone correlates very strongly with serum cortisol in the ONDST and could therefore be used as an alternative sampling method which does not require venepuncture or attendance at hospital.

Biochemical Assessment of Pheochromocytoma and Paraganglioma

Pheochromocytoma and paraganglioma (PPGL) require prompt consideration and efficient diagnosis and treatment to minimize associated morbidity and mortality. Once considered, appropriate biochemical testing is key to diagnosis. Advances in understanding catecholamine metabolism have clarified why measurements of the O-methylated catecholamine metabolites rather than the catecholamines themselves are important for effective diagnosis. These metabolites, normetanephrine and metanephrine, produced respectively from norepinephrine and epinephrine, can be measured in plasma or urine, with choice according to available methods or presentation of patients. For patients with signs and symptoms of catecholamine excess, either test will invariably establish the diagnosis, whereas the plasma test provides higher sensitivity than urinary metanephrines for patients screened due to an incidentaloma or genetic predisposition, particularly for small tumors or in patients with an asymptomatic presentation. Additional measurements of plasma methoxytyramine can be important for some tumors, such as paragangliomas, and for surveillance of patients at risk of metastatic disease. Avoidance of false-positive test results is best achieved by plasma measurements with appropriate reference intervals and preanalytical precautions, including sampling blood in the fully supine position. Follow-up of positive results, including optimization of preanalytics for repeat tests or whether to proceed directly to anatomic imaging or confirmatory clonidine tests, depends on the test results, which can also suggest likely size, adrenal vs extra-adrenal location, underlying biology, or even metastatic involvement of a suspected tumor. Modern biochemical testing now makes diagnosis of PPGL relatively simple. Integration of artificial intelligence into the process should make it possible to fine-tune these advances.

A Laboratory Medicine Perspective on the Investigation of Phaeochromocytoma and Paraganglioma

Phaeochromocytomas (PC) and sympathetic paragangliomas (PGL) are potentially malignant tumours arising from the adrenal medulla (PC) or elsewhere in the sympathetic nervous system (PGL). These tumours usually secrete catecholamines and are associated with significant morbidity and mortality, so accurate and timely diagnosis is essential. The initial diagnosis of phaeochromocytoma/paraganglioma (PPGL) is often dependent on biochemical testing. There is a range of pre-analytical, analytical and post-analytical factors influencing the analytical and diagnostic performance of biochemical tests for PPGL. Pre-analytical factors include patient preparation, sample handling and choice of test. Analytical factors include choice of methodology and the potential for analytical interference from medications and other compounds. Important factors in the post-analytical phase include provision of appropriate reference ranges, an understanding of the potential effects of various medications on metanephrine concentrations in urine and plasma and a consideration of PPGL prevalence in the patient population being tested. This article reviews these pre-analytical, analytical and post-analytical factors that must be understood in order to provide effective laboratory services for biochemical testing in the diagnosis of PPGL.

Adrenocortical carcinoma: Diagnosis, prognostic classification and treatment of localized and advanced disease

Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is a rare cancer with an estimated incidence of 0.7 to 2.0 cases per 1 million population per year in the United States. It is an aggressive cancer originating in the cortex of the adrenal gland with a poor prognosis. The 5-year survival rate is less than 15% among patients with metastatic disease. In this article, we review the epidemiology and pathogenesis of ACC, the diagnostic procedures, the prognostic classification of ACC, and the treatment options from localized and resectable forms to advanced disease detailing recent therapeutic developments such as immunotherapy and molecularly targeted therapy.

Prevalence and incidence of type 2 diabetes mellitus in patients with adrenal incidentalomas: a study of 709 cases

AIM

To evaluate the prevalence and incidence of type 2 diabetes in patients with nonfunctioning adrenal incidentalomas (NFAI) or adrenal incidentalomas (AI) with autonomous cortisol secretion (ACS).

METHODS

In this single-center retrospective study, all patients with adrenal incidentalomas ≥1 cm and ACS or NFAI studied between 2013 and 2020 were included. ACS was defined by a post-dexamethasone suppression test (DST) serum cortisol concentration ≥1.8 μg/dl, in the absence of signs of hypercortisolism, and NFAI was defined as a DST < 1.8 μg/dl without biochemical evidence of hypersecretion of other hormones.

RESULTS

Inclusion criteria were met by 231 patients with ACS and 478 with NFAI. At diagnosis, type 2 diabetes was present in 24.3% of patients. No differences were found in the prevalence of type 2 diabetes (27.7 vs. 22.6%, P = 0.137) between patients with ACS and NFAI. However, fasting plasma glucose values and glycated hemoglobin levels were significantly higher in patients with ACS than with NFAI (112 ± 35.6 vs. 105 ± 29 mg/dl, P = 0.004; and 6.5 ± 1.4 vs. 6.1 ± 0.9%, P = 0.005, respectively). Furthermore, patients with type 2 diabetes had higher urinary free cortisol (P = 0.039) and late-night salivary cortisol levels (P = 0.010) than those without type 2 diabetes. After a median follow-up of 28 months, no differences were found in the incidence of type 2 diabetes between the groups (HR 1.17, 95% 0.52-2.64).

CONCLUSION

Type 2 diabetes was present in one fourth of our cohort. We found no differences in its prevalence or incidence between the groups. However, glycemic control might be worse among diabetic patients with ACS. Higher concentrations of urinary and salivary cortisol were found in patients with than without type 2 diabetes.

Role of computed tomography in predicting adrenal adenomas with cortisol hypersecretion

OBJECTIVES

To investigate performance of adrenal CT-derived multivariate prediction models in differentiating adenomas with cortisol hypersecretion from the other subtypes.

METHODS

This retrospective study included 127 patients who underwent adrenal CT and had a surgically proven adrenal adenoma. Adenoma subtypes were defined according to biochemical test results: Group A, overt cortisol hypersecretion; Group B, mild cortisol hypersecretion; Group C, aldosterone hypersecretion; and Group D, non-function. Two independent readers analyzed size, attenuation, and washout properties of adenomas, and performed quantitative and qualitative analyses for assessing contralateral adrenal atrophy. Actual and internally validated areas under the curves (AUCs) of adrenal CT-derived multivariate prediction models for differentiating adenomas with cortisol hypersecretion from the other subtypes were assessed.

RESULTS

In differentiating Group A from the other groups, the actual and internally validated AUCs of the prediction model were 0.856 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.786, 0.926) and 0.847 (95% CI: 0.695, 0.999) for Reader 1, respectively, and 0.901 (95% CI: 0.845, 0.956) and 0.897 (95% CI: 0.783, 1.000) for Reader 2, respectively. In differentiating Group B from groups C and D, the actual and internally validated AUCs of the prediction model were 0.777 (95% CI: 0.687, 0.866) and 0.760 (95% CI: 0.552, 0.969) for Reader 1, respectively, and 0.783 (95% CI: 0.690, 0.875) and 0.765 (95% CI: 0.553, 0.977) for Reader 2, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Adrenal CT may be useful in differentiating adenomas with cortisol hypersecretion from the other subtypes.

ADVANCES IN KNOWLEDGE

Adrenal CT may benefit in adrenal adenoma subtyping.

Adrenal steroid metabolites and bone status in patients with adrenal incidentalomas and hypercortisolism

BACKGROUND

Autonomous cortisol secretion (ACS), resulting from cortisol-producing adenomas (CPA), causes endogenous steroid-induced osteoporosis (SIOP). However, the risk of endogenous SIOP cannot be explained by cortisol excess alone, and how other steroid metabolites affect bone status is unclear.

METHODS

ACS was diagnosed as serum cortisol ≥1.8 μg/dL after the 1-mg dexamethasone suppression test (DST-cortisol). Using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry, 21 plasma steroid metabolites were measured in 73 patients with ACS and 85 patients with non-functioning adrenal tumors (NFAT). Expression of steroidogenic enzymes and relevant steroid metabolites were analyzed in some of CPA tissues.

FINDINGS

Discriminant and principal component analyses distinguished steroid profiles between the ACS and NFAT groups in premenopausal women. Premenopausal women with ACS exhibited higher levels of a mineralocorticoid metabolite, 11-deoxycorticosterone (11-DOC), and lower levels of androgen metabolites, dehydroepiandrosterone-sulfate, and androsterone-glucuronide. In premenopausal women with ACS, DST-cortisol negatively correlated with trabecular bone score (TBS). Additionally, 11-DOC negatively correlated with lumbar spine-bone mineral density, whereas androsterone-glucuronide positively correlated with TBS. The CPA tissues showed increased 11-DOC levels with increased expression of CYP21A2, essential for 11-DOC synthesis. Adrenal non-tumor tissues were atrophied with reduced expression of CYB5A, required for androgen synthesis.

INTERPRETATION

This study demonstrates that unbalanced production of adrenal steroid metabolites, derived from both adrenal tumor and non-tumor tissues, contributes to the pathogenesis of endogenous SIOP in premenopausal women with ACS.

FUNDING

JSPS KAKENHI, Secom Science and Technology Foundation, Takeda Science Foundation, Japan Foundation for Applied Enzymology, AMED-CREST, JSTA-STEP, JST-Moonshot, and Ono Medical Research Foundation.

Long-term blood pressure outcomes of laparoscopic adrenalectomy in trHTN patients

Background and Objectives

Treatment resistant hypertension (trHTN) is a common clinical problem faced by many clinicians. Laparoscopic adrenalectomy effectively trims blood pressure (BP) elevation secondary to various functional adrenal disorders. However, the impact of adrenalectomy on BP within trHTN patients has never been reported. Our present study aims to investigate the effect of adrenalectomy on BP management within trHTN patients, and to explore clinical predictors for postoperative BP normalization.

Patients and Methods

In our current study, 117 patients diagnosed with trHTN and performed with unilateral adrenalectomy were consecutively enrolled, demographic and medical information were documented for baseline data collection. BP was measured with a standard electronic sphygmomanometer twice a day. Long-term periodical interview was conducted and 109 (93.2%) enrolled patients were successfully followed-up at an averaged 36.2 months.

Results

At follow-up, 27/109 (25%) trHTN patients acquired BP normalization and 68/109 (62%) patients acquired BP improvement. Mean taking anti-hypertensive agents reduced from presurgical 4.24 to present 1.21 (P < 0.01), along with 7.2 mmHg reduction in SBP (P < 0.01). Image macro-adenoma and hypokalemia history were found to be the two strongest predictors for postoperative BP normalization. (χ2= 28.032, P < 0.01). The incidence of adverse postoperative events was quite small.

Conclusions

In summary, this current study implicates that adrenalectomy is an efficacious and safe surgical strategy for BP management in trHTN patients. Patients with both unilateral macro-adenoma and hypokalemia are more prone to acquire postoperative BP normalization.

High prevalence of frailty in patients with adrenal adenomas and adrenocortical hormone excess: a cross-sectional multi-centre study with prospective enrolment

OBJECTIVE

Frailty, characterized by multi-system decline, increases vulnerability to adverse health outcomes and can be measured using Frailty Index (FI). We aimed to assess the prevalence of frailty in patients with adrenal disorders (based on hormonal sub-type) and examine association between FI and performance-based measures of physical function.

DESIGN

Multi-centre, cross-sectional study (March 2019-August 2022).

METHODS

Adult patients with adrenal disorders (non-functioning adrenal adenomas [NFA], mild autonomous cortisol secretion [MACS], Cushing syndrome [CS], primary aldosteronism [PA]) and referent subjects without adrenal disorders completed a questionnaire encompassing 47 health variables (comorbidities, symptoms, daily living activities). FI was calculated as the average score of all variables and frailty defined as FI ≥ 0.25. Physical function was assessed with hand grip, timed up-and-go test, chair rising test, 6-minute walk test, and gait speed.

RESULTS

Compared to referent subjects (n = 89), patients with adrenal disorders (n = 520) showed increased age, sex, and body mass index-adjusted prevalence of frailty (CS [odds ratio-OR 19.2, 95% confidence interval-CI 6.7-70], MACS [OR 12.5, 95% CI 4.8-42.9], PA [OR 8.4, 95% CI 2.9-30.4], NFA [OR 4.5, 95% CI 1.7-15.9]). Prevalence of frailty was similar to referent subjects when post-dexamethasone cortisol was <28 nmol/L and was higher when post-dexamethasone cortisol was 28-50 nmol/L (OR 4.6, 95% CI 1.7-16.5). FI correlated with all measures of physical function (P < .001).

CONCLUSIONS

Whilst frailty prevalence was highest in patients with adrenocortical hormone excess, even patients with NFA demonstrated an increased prevalence compared to the referent population. Future longitudinal studies are needed to evaluate the impact of various management strategies on frailty.

[Metastatic lesions of the adrenal glands. The experience of Endocrinology Research Center.]

Differentiation between benign, primary and secondary malignant tumors is a critical problem in the clinical treatment of adrenal tumors, especially in patients with isolated adrenal lesions. In most cases, the correct diagnosis can be established microscopically with standard staining with hematoxylin and eosin. However, there are cases when it is almost impossible to distinguish metastasis from primary adrenal cancer, so an accurate diagnosis requires an immunohistochemical examination.This article presents five unique observations of secondary adrenal tumors that were diagnosed by us in the current surgical material: metastasis of clear cell renal cell carcinoma, follicular variant of papillary thyroid cancer, metastasis of keratinizing squamous cell carcinoma of the cervix, lymphoepithelioma-like carcinoma of the bladder, as well as malignant mesothelioma. Taking into account the extreme rarity of the presented observations, we present an analysis of the literature data.

Expression of EMP 1, 2, and 3 in Adrenal Cortical Neoplasm and Pheochromocytoma

The purpose of this study is to investigate the expression of the epithelial membrane proteins (EMP) 1, 2, and 3 in adrenal gland neoplasm and to explore the broader implications of this. Tissue microarrays were constructed for 132 cases of adrenal cortical neoplasms (ACN) (adrenal cortical adenoma (115 cases), and carcinoma (17 cases)) and 189 cases of pheochromocytoma. Immunohistochemical staining was performed to identify EMP 1, 2, and 3, and was compared with clinicopathological parameters. The H-score of EMP 3 (p < 0.001) was higher in pheochromocytoma when compared to that of ACN, and the H-score of EMP 1 (p < 0.001) and EMP 3 (p < 0.001) was higher in adrenal cortical carcinomas when compared to that of adrenal cortical adenomas. A higher EMP 1 H-score was observed in pheochromocytomas with a GAPP score ≥3 (p = 0.018). In univariate analysis, high levels of EMP 1 and EMP 3 expression in ACN were associated with shorter overall survival (p = 0.001). Differences were observed in the expression of EMPs between ACN and pheochromocytoma. EMPs are associated with malignant tumor biology in adrenal cortical neoplasm and pheochromocytoma, suggesting the role of a prognostic and/or predictive factor for EMPs in adrenal tumor.

The Diagnostic Value of 18F-FDG PET/CT Scan in Characterizing Adrenal Tumors

CONTEXT

Imaging plays an important role in the characterization of adrenal tumors, but findings might be inconclusive. The clinical question is whether 18F fluodeoxyglucose (18F-FDG) positron emission tomography/computed tomography (PET/CT) is of diagnostic value in this setting.

OBJECTIVE

This meta-analysis was aimed at the diagnostic value of 18F-FDG PET/CT in differentiating benign from malignant adrenal tumors discovered either as adrenal incidentaloma or during staging or follow-up of oncologic patients.

DATA SOURCES

PubMed, EMBASE, Web of Science, and Cochrane Library were searched to select articles between 2000 and 2021.

STUDY SELECTION

We included studies describing the diagnostic value of 18F-FDG PET/CT in adult patients with an adrenal tumor. Exclusion criteria were 10 or fewer participants, insufficient data on histopathology, clinical follow-up, or PET results. After screening of title and abstract by 2 independent reviewers, 79 studies were retrieved, of which 17 studies met the selection criteria.

DATA EXTRACTION

Data extraction using a protocol and quality assessment according to QUADAS-2 was performed independently by at least 2 authors.

DATA SYNTHESIS

A bivariate random-effects model was applied using R (version 3.6.2.). Pooled sensitivity and specificity of 18F-FDG PET/CT for identifying malignant adrenal tumors was 87.3% (95% CI, 82.5%-90.9%) and 84.7% (95% CI, 79.3%-88.9%), respectively. The pooled diagnostic odds ratio was 9.20 (95% CI, 5.27-16.08; P < .01). Major sources of heterogeneity (I2, 57.1% [95% CI, 27.5%-74.6%]) were in population characteristics, reference standard, and interpretation criteria of imaging results.

CONCLUSIONS

18F-FDG PET/CT had good diagnostic accuracy for characterization of adrenal tumors. The literature, however, is limited, in particular regarding adrenal incidentalomas. Large prospective studies in well-defined patient populations with application of validated cutoff values are needed.

Primary Aldosteronism Prevalence - An Unfolding Story

Primary aldosteronism (PA) is characterized by dysregulated, renin-independent aldosterone excess. Long perceived as rare, PA has emerged as one of the most common causes of secondary hypertension. Failure to recognize and treat PA results in cardiovascular and renal complications, through processes mediated by both direct target tissue insults and indirectly, by hypertension. PA spans a continuum of dysregulated aldosterone secretion, which is typically recognized in late stages after treatment-resistant hypertension and cardiovascular and/or renal complications develop. Determining the precise disease burden remains challenging due to heterogeneity in testing, arbitrary thresholds, and populations studied. This review summarizes the reports on PA prevalence among the general population and in specific high-risk subgroups, highlighting the impact of rigid versus permissive criteria on PA prevalence perception.

Age-related Changes in the Adrenal Cortex: Insights and Implications

Aging is characterized by a gradual decline in physiological function. This process affects all organs including the adrenal cortex, which normally functions to produce essential steroid hormones including mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and androgens. With increasing age, features such as reduced adrenal cortex size, altered zonation, and increased myeloid immune cell infiltration substantially alter the structure and function of the adrenal cortex. Many of these hallmark features of adrenal cortex aging occur both in males and females, yet are more enhanced in males. Hormonally, a substantial reduction in adrenal androgens is a key feature of aging, which is accompanied by modest changes in aldosterone and cortisol. These hormonal changes are associated with various pathological consequences including impaired immune responses, decreased bone health, and accelerated age-related diseases. One of the most notable changes with adrenal aging is the increased incidence of adrenal tumors, which is sex dimorphic with a higher prevalence in females. Increased adrenal tumorigenesis with age is likely driven by both an increase in genetic mutations as well as remodeling of the tissue microenvironment. Novel antiaging strategies offer a promising avenue to mitigate adrenal aging and alleviate age-associated pathologies, including adrenal tumors.

Optimizing adrenal vein sampling in primary aldosteronism subtyping through LC-MS/MS and secretion ratios of aldosterone, 18-oxocortisol, and 18-hydroxycortisol

Adrenal venous sampling (AVS) is the gold standard for identifying curable unilateral aldosterone excess in primary aldosteronism (PA). Studies have demonstrated the value of steroid profiling through liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) in AVS interpretation. First, the performance of LC-MS/MS and immunoassay in assessing selectivity and lateralization was compared. Second, the utility of the proportion of individual steroids in adrenal veins in subtyping PA was analyzed. We enrolled 75 consecutive patients with PA who underwent AVS between 2020 and 2021. Fifteen adrenal steroids were analyzed in peripheral and adrenal veins through LC-MS/MS before and after adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulation. Through selectivity index that was based on cortisol and alternative steroids, LC-MS/MS rescued 45% and 66% of failed cases judged by immunoassay in unstimulated and stimulated AVS, respectively. LC-MS/MS identified more unilateral diseases than did immunoassay (76% vs. 45%, P < 0.05) and provided adrenalectomy opportunities to 69% of patients judged through immunoassay to have bilateral disease. The secretion ratios (individual steroid concentration/total steroid concentration) of aldosterone, 18-oxocortisol, and 18-hydroxycortisol were novel indicators for identifying unilateral PA. The 18-oxocortisol secretion ratio of ≥0.785‰ (sensitivity/specificity: 0.90/0.77) at pre-ACTH and aldosterone secretion ratio of ≤0.637‰ (sensitivity/specificity: 0.88/0.85) at post-ACTH enabled optimal accuracy for predicting ipsilateral and contralateral disease, respectively, in robust unilateral PA. LC-MS/MS improved the success rate of AVS and identified more unilateral diseases than immunoassay. The secretion ratios of steroids can be used to discriminate the broad PA spectrum.

Mortality in Patients With Nonfunctional Adrenal Tumors

Importance

It is unclear if nonfunctional adrenal adenomas (NFAAs) are associated with increased mortality.

Objective

To analyze mortality and causes of death in patients with NFAA.

Design, Setting, and Participants

A national retrospective register-based case-control study was conducted and included 17 726 patients with a diagnosis of adrenal adenoma in Sweden from 2005 to 2019 who were identified and followed up until death or 2020 as well as 124 366 controls without adrenal adenoma. Individuals with diagnoses indicating adrenal hormonal excess or cancer were excluded. Follow-up started after 3 months of cancer-free survival following the date of the NFAA diagnosis. Sensitivity analyses were performed in subgroups of individuals for whom it was assumed that controls would also have undergone computed tomography: those with acute appendicitis (for whom it was assumed that there was no concern of cancer) and in patients with a combination of gallbladder, biliary tract, and pancreas disorders and 6-month and 12-month cancer-free survival following the date of the NFAA diagnosis. The data were analyzed in 2022.

Exposures

Diagnosis of NFAA.

Main Outcomes and Measures

The primary outcome was all-cause mortality among patients with NFAA after adjustment for comorbidities and socioeconomic factors. Secondary outcomes were mortality due to cardiovascular diseases and cancer.

Results

Among 17 726 cases, 10 777 (60.8%) were women, and the median (IQR) age was 65 (57-73) years; among 124 366 controls, 69 514 (55.9%) were women, and the median (IQR) age was 66 (58-73) years. Among cases, overall mortality during the follow-up period (median, 6.2 years [IQR, 3.3-9.6 years]) was higher compared with controls (hazard ratio [HR] 1.43; 95 CI, 1.38-1.48; adjusted HR [aHR], 1.21; 95% CI, 1.16-1.26). The relative association of NFAA with overall mortality was similar in women and men (aHR, 1.22 [95% CI, 1.15-1.28] vs 1.19 [95% CI, 1.11-1.26]; P < .001 in both groups). In contrast, NFAA was associated with a larger increase in mortality among individuals younger than 65 years (aHR, 1.44; 95% CI, 1.31-1.58) than in older individuals (aHR, 1.15; 95% CI, 1.10-1.20; P < .001 for interaction). Mortality due to cardiovascular diseases was increased (aHR, 1.21; 95% CI, 1.13-1.29), as was mortality due to cancer (aHR, 1.54; 95% CI, 1.42-1.67). The association between NFAA and mortality remained significant and of similar magnitude in all sensitivity analyses.

Conclusions and Relevance

The results of this case-control study suggest that NFAA was associated with an increased overall mortality and mortality of cardiovascular disease and cancer. The increase was more pronounced among younger individuals.

Recent Updates on the Management of Adrenal Incidentalomas

Adrenal incidentalomas represent an increasingly common clinical conundrum with significant implications for patients. The revised 2023 European Society of Endocrinology (ESE) guideline incorporates cutting-edge evidence for managing adrenal incidentalomas. This paper provides a concise review of the updated contents of the revised guideline. In the 2023 guideline, in patients without signs and symptoms of overt Cushing's syndrome, a post-dexamethasone cortisol level above 50 nmol/L (>1.8 μg/dL) should be considered as mild autonomous cortisol secretion. Regarding the criteria of benign adrenal adenomas, a homogeneous adrenal mass with ≤10 Hounsfield units on non-contrast computed tomography requires no further follow-up, irrespective of its size. The updated guideline also discusses steroid metabolomics using tandem mass spectrometry to discriminate malignancy. It underscores the importance of high-volume surgeons performing adrenalectomy and emphasizes the pivotal role of a multidisciplinary team approach in deciding the treatment plan for indeterminate adrenal masses. The guideline advocates for more proactive surgical treatment for indeterminate adrenal masses in young patients (<40 years) and pregnant women. This review of the 2023 ESE guideline underscores the ongoing evolution of the adrenal incidentaloma management landscape, emphasizing the need for further research and adaptation of diagnostic and therapeutic strategies.

Primary Adrenal Lymphomas with Cushing's Syndrome: Two Cases with Evidence of Endogeneous Cortisol Production by the Neoplastic Lymphoid Cells

Primary adrenal lymphoma (PAL) is a rare entity that presents as unilateral or bilateral rapidly growing adrenal masses, with signs and symptoms most commonly related to adrenal insufficiency due to the mass effect on the surrounding tissues. Although steroeidogenesis has not been previously described in PAL, we herein report two cases of PAL presenting as adrenal incidentalomas (AIs) that demonstrated autonomous cortisol production. A 52-year-old woman presented with lumbar pain; a computed tomography (CT) scan demonstrated a left AI measuring 8.5 × 15 × 10 cm. Similarly, an 80-year-old woman presented with lumbar pain, demonstrating in a CT scan a bilateral AI (right: 9 × 6.5 cm, left: 3.6 × 3.2 cm). Both cases underwent a full hormonal evaluation according to the algorithm for the investigation of AIs, demonstrating increased 24-h cortisol excretion, suppressed fasting adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) levels, and non-suppressed serum cortisol levels in both the overnight and the low-dose dexamethasone suppression tests, indicating autonomous cortisol secretion and Cushing's syndrome. In a relatively short time, both patients developed night sweats, and their clinical picture deteriorated, while the CT scans showed increased dimensions of the masses with radiological characteristics compatible to lymphoma. Both patients underwent ultrasound-guided biopsies (FNBs), revealing infiltration of the left adrenal by diffuse large B-cell lymphoma in the first case, whereas bilateral adrenal infiltration from the same histological type was noted in the second case. Subsequently, they were treated with immunochemotherapy, but the second patient died from an infection shortly after the initiation of the treatment. To our knowledge, this is the first report of PAL presenting with Cushing's syndrome due to autonomous cortisol production, indicating that neoplastic lymphoid cells in PAL might acquire the potential for steroidogenesis; therefore, more cases of PAL should be analyzed so as to further elucidate the complex pathogenesis and the natural course of this entity.

Emerging diagnostic methods and imaging modalities in cushing's syndrome

Endogenous Cushing's syndrome (CS) is a rare disease characterized by prolonged glucocorticoid excess. Timely diagnosis is critical to allow prompt treatment and limit long-term disease morbidity and risk for mortality. Traditional biochemical diagnostic modalities each have limitations and sensitivities and specificities that vary significantly with diagnostic cutoff values. Biochemical evaluation is particularly complex in patients whose hypercortisolemia fluctuates daily, often requiring repetition of tests to confirm or exclude disease, and when delineating CS from physiologic, nonneoplastic states of hypercortisolism. Lastly, traditional pituitary MRI may be negative in up to 60% of patients with adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)-secreting pituitary adenomas (termed "Cushing's disease" [CD]) whereas false positive pituitary MRI findings may exist in patients with ectopic ACTH secretion. Thus, differentiating CD from ectopic ACTH secretion may necessitate dynamic testing or even invasive procedures such as bilateral inferior petrosal sinus sampling. Newer methods may relieve some of the diagnostic uncertainty in CS, providing a more definitive diagnosis prior to subjecting patients to additional imaging or invasive procedures. For example, a novel method of cortisol measurement in patients with CS is scalp hair analysis, a non-invasive method yielding cortisol and cortisone values representing long-term glucocorticoid exposure of the past months. Hair cortisol and cortisone have both shown to differentiate between CS patients and controls with a high sensitivity and specificity. Moreover, advances in imaging techniques may enhance detection of ACTH-secreting pituitary adenomas. While conventional pituitary MRI may fail to identify microadenomas in patients with CD, high-resolution 3T-MRI with 3D-spoiled gradient-echo sequence has thinner sections and superior soft-tissue contrast that can detect adenomas as small as 2 mm. Similarly, functional imaging may improve the identification of ACTH-secreting adenomas noninvasively; Gallium-68-tagged corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) combined with PET-CT can be used to detect CRH receptors, which are upregulated on corticotroph adenomas. This technique can delineate functionality of adenomas in patients with CD from patients with ectopic ACTH secretion and false positive pituitary lesions on MRI. Here, we review emerging methods and imaging modalities for the diagnosis of CS, discussing their diagnostic accuracy, strengths and limitations, and applicability to clinical practice.

Association between contralateral adrenal and hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis in benign adrenocortical tumors

Context

Adrenal incidentaloma (AI) is commonly discovered on cross-sectional imaging. Mild autonomous cortisol secretion is the most common functional disorder detected in AI.

Objective

To delineate the association between radiological characteristics of benign adrenocortical tumors and hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis.

Methods

In the study, 494 patients diagnosed with benign unilateral adrenocortical tumors were included. Mild autonomous cortisol secretion (MACS) was diagnosed when cortisol after 1mg-dexamethasone suppression test (1-mg DST) was in the range of 1.8-5ug/dl. Non-functional adrenocortical tumor (NFAT) was diagnosed as cortisol following 1-mg DST less than 1.8ug/dL. We performed Logistics regression and causal mediation analyses, looking for associations between radiological characteristics and the HPA axis.

Results

Of 494 patients, 352 (71.3%) with NFAT and 142 (28.7%) with MACS were included. Patients with MACS had a higher tumor diameter, thinner contralateral adrenal gland, and lower plasma ACTH and serum DHEAS than those with NFAT. ACTH (OR 0.978, 0.962-0.993) and tumor diameter (OR 1.857, 95%CI, 1.357-2.540) were independent factors associated with decreased serum DHEAS (all P<0.05). ACTH was also associated with decreased contralateral adrenal diameter significantly (OR 0.973, 95%CI, 0.957-0.988, P=0.001). Causal mediation analysis showed ACTH mediated the effect significantly for the association between 1-mg DST results and DHEAS level (Pmediation<0.001, proportion=22.3%). Meanwhile, we found ACTH mediated 39.7% of the effects of 1-mg DST on contralateral adrenal diameter (Pmediation=0.012).

Conclusions

Patients with MACS had thinner contralateral adrenal glands and disturbed HPA axes compared with NFAT. ACTH may partially be involved in mediating the mild autonomous cortisol secretion to DHEAS and the contralateral adrenal gland.

An Integrated CT and MRI Imaging Model to Differentiate between Adrenal Adenomas and Pheochromocytomas

PURPOSE

to perform an external validation of our predictive model to rule out pheochromocytoma (PHEO) based on unenhanced CT in a cohort of patients with PHEOs and adenomas who underwent adrenalectomy.

METHODS

The predictive model was previously developed in a retrospective cohort of 1131 patients presenting with adrenal lesions. In the present study, we performed an external validation of the model in another cohort of 214 patients with available histopathological results.

RESULTS

For the external validation, 115 patients with PHEOs and 99 with adenomas were included. Our previously described predictive model combining the variables of high lipid content and tumor size in unenhanced CT (AUC-ROC: 0.961) had a lower diagnostic accuracy in our current study population for the prediction of PHEO (AUC: 0.750). However, when we excluded atypical adenomas (with Hounsfield units (HU) > 10, n = 39), the diagnostic accuracy increased to 87.4%. In addition, in the whole cohort (including atypical adenomas), when MRI information was included in the model, the diagnostic accuracy increased to up to 85% when the variables tumor size, high lipid content in an unenhanced CT scan, and hyperintensity in the T2 sequence in MRI were included. The probability of PHEO was <0.3% for adrenal lesions <20 mm with >10 HU and without hyperintensity in T2.

CONCLUSION

Our study confirms that our predictive model combining tumor size and lipid content has high reliability for the prediction of PHEO when atypical adrenal lesions are excluded. However, for atypical adrenal lesions with >10 HU in an unenhanced CT scan, MRI information is necessary for a proper exclusion of the PHEO diagnosis.

The Role of the IGF2 Methylation Score in Diagnosing Adrenocortical Tumors with Unclear Malignant Potential-Feasibility of Formalin-Fixed Paraffin-Embedded Tissue

The differentiation between benign and malignant adrenocortical tumors based on pathological assessment can be difficult. We present a series of 17 patients with unclear malignant tumors, of whom six had recurrent or metastatic disease. The assessment of the methylation pattern of insulin-like growth factor 2 (IGF2) regulatory regions in fresh frozen material has shown to be valuable in determining the malignancy of adrenocortical tumors, although this has not been elaborately tested in unclear malignant tumors. Since fresh frozen tissue was only available in six of the patients, we determined the feasibility of using formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissue for this method. We isolated DNA from FFPE tissue and matched the fresh frozen tissue of three patients with adrenocortical carcinoma. Methylation patterns of IGF2 regulatory regions were determined by pyrosequencing using different amounts of bisulfite-converted DNA (5 ng, 20 ng, 40 ng). Compared to fresh frozen tissue, FFPE tissue had a higher failure rate (fresh frozen 0%; FFPE 18.5%) and poor-to-moderate replicability (fresh frozen rho = 0.89-0.99, median variation 1.6%; FFPE rho = -0.09-0.85, median variation 7.7%). There was only a poor-to-moderate correlation between results from fresh frozen and FFPE tissue (rho = -0.28-0.70, median variation 13.2%). In conclusion, FFPE tissue is not suitable for determining the IGF2 methylation score in patients with an unclear malignant adrenocortical tumor using the currently used method. We, therefore, recommend fresh frozen storage of resection material for diagnostic and biobank purposes.

Mortality Not Increased in Patients With Nonfunctional Adrenal Adenomas: A Matched Cohort Study

CONTEXT

Mild autonomous cortisol secretion (MACS) is associated with increased mortality in patients with adrenal incidentalomas, but little is known regarding the potential risk associated with nonfunctional adrenal adenomas (NFAA), which constitute the majority of adrenal incidentalomas.

OBJECTIVE

Compare mortality risk in patients with NFAA, and different levels of MACS, to matched controls.

METHOD

This was a retrospective matched cohort study. All patients referred to 2 endocrine centers in southern Sweden because of an adrenal incidentaloma between 2005 and 2015 were enrolled. Controls (3:1) matched for sex, age, and residency were included. Primary endpoint was all-cause mortality. Outcome data were obtained from the Cause of Death Register. Patients were grouped according to cortisol level post 1-mg dexamethasone suppression test (cortisolDST) (<50 (NFAA), 50-82, 83-137, and ≥138 nmol/L).

RESULTS

1154 patients and 3462 matched controls were included. During a median follow-up of 6.6 years, 210 patients and 505 controls died. There were no statistically significant differences in mortality between patients with NFAA and their controls (HR 1.13 [0.87-1.46]) whereas mortality was increased compared to controls in patients with cortisolDST 83-137 (HR 1.99 [1.38-2.88]) and ≥138 nmol/L (HR 4.09 [2.41-6.93]). Likewise, the mortality risk was increased in patients younger than 65 years with cortisolDST 50-82 nmol/L compared with controls (HR 2.33 [1.30-4.17]).

CONCLUSION

NFAA does not seem to pose a clinically relevant risk for increased mortality in patients with adrenal incidentalomas while patients with MACS, and especially younger patients and those with cortisolDST ≥83 nmol/L, have significantly increased mortality risk compared with matched controls.

Low catestatin as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease - assessment in patients with adrenal incidentalomas

Background

Catestatin (Cts) is a peptide derived from proteolytic cleavage of chromogranin A, which exhibits cardioprotective and anti-inflammatory properties. Cts has been proposed as a potential biomarker for cardiovascular (CV) disease.

Objectives

examining Cts in patients with incidentally discovered adrenocortical adenomas (AI), and its associations with CV risk factors and blood pressure (BP).

Materials and methods

In this cross-sectional study, 64 AI patients without overt CV disease other than primary hypertension were recruited along with 24 age-, sex-, and body-mass-index (BMI)-matched controls with normal adrenal morphology. Laboratory, 24-h ambulatory BP monitoring, echocardiography, and common carotid artery sonography examinations were performed.

Results

Unadjusted Cts was higher in AI patients (median 6.5, interquartile range: 4.9-37 ng/ml) versus controls (4.5 (3.5 - 28)), p=0.048, however, the difference was insignificant after adjusting for confounding variables. Cts was lower in subjects with metabolic syndrome than in those without it (5.2 (3.9- 6.9) vs. 25.7 (5.8-115) ng/ml, p<0.01), and in men compared to women (4.9 (4-7.4) ng/ml vs. 7 (4.8-100), p=0.015). AI patients in the lower half of Cts levels compared to those in the upper had a higher prevalence of hypertension (OR 0.15, 95% CI: 0.041-0.5, p<0.001) and metabolic syndrome (OR 0.15, 95% CI 0.041-0.5, p<0.001). In AI patients Cts correlated positively with high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (Spearman's r=0.31), negatively with BMI (r=-0.31), and 10-year atherosclerotic CV disease risk (r=-0.42).

Conclusions

Our data indicate associations between CV risk factors and Cts. More clinical research is needed to apply serum Cts as a biomarker.

Do Non-Functional Adrenal Adenomas Affect Metabolic Profile and Carotid Intima-Media Thickness? A Single Centre Study from Poland

Background: Compared to the general population, among people with adrenal incidentalomas (AIs) the diagnosis of obesity, hypertension, impaired carbohydrate and lipid metabolism is more common. The aformentioned disorders represent typical cardiovascular remodeling risk factors. The study was designed to assess the association between NFAIs, metabolic profile and carotid intima-media thickness (CIMT) as the predictive factor of atherosclerosis. Material: The study included 48 patients with NFAI (16 men, 32 women, mean age 58.6 +/- 9 years) and 44 control participants (15 men, 29 women, mean age 57 +/- 7 years). Both groups were matched for age, gender and BMI. Subjects with history of myocardial infarction, stroke or diabetes mellitus (DM) were excluded. Participants underwent adrenal imaging, biochemical evaluation, and measurement of CIMT. Hormonal evaluation was conducted in AI patients. Results: The NFAI group had significantly higher waist circumference (p < 0.01), higher systolic (p < 0.01) and diastolic blood pressure (p < 0.01), fasting insulin (p = 0.03) and glucose in the 2 h OGTT (p = 0.04) as well as higher CIMT (p < 0.01). Hypertension (p < 0.01) and IGT (p = 0.026) were more common in this group as well. There was a positive correlation between CIMT and cortisol levels in 1 mg dexamethasone suppression test (r = 0.33, p = 0.02). Conclusions: Patients diagnosed with NFAIs, despite normal cortisol inhibition in the 1 mg dexamethasone test, still presented a number of metabolic abnormalities. The assessment of IMT may proove valuable in indicate the presence of early vascular remodelling in asymptomatic patients. The underlying mechanisms of these findings are still unknown, hence further studies are required.

Glucocorticoid withdrawal syndrome following surgical remission of endogenous hypercortisolism: a longitudinal observational study

OBJECTIVE

Glucocorticoid withdrawal syndrome (GWS) is a scarcely studied phenomenon that complicates the recovery following surgical remission of hypercortisolism. We aimed to characterize the presence and trajectory of glucocorticoid withdrawal symptoms in the postoperative period and to determine presurgical predictors of GWS severity.

DESIGN

Longitudinal observational study.

METHODS

Glucocorticoid withdrawal symptoms were prospectively evaluated weekly for the first 12 weeks following surgical remission of hypercortisolism. Quality of life (CushingQoL and Short-Form-36) and muscle function (hand grip strength and sit-to-stand test) were assessed at the baseline and at 12 weeks after surgery.

RESULTS

Prevalent symptoms were myalgias and arthralgias (50%), fatigue (45%), weakness (34%), sleep disturbance (29%), and mood changes (19%). Most symptoms persisted, while myalgias, arthralgias, and weakness worsened during weeks 5-12 postoperatively. At 12 weeks after surgery, normative hand grip strength was weaker than at baseline (mean Z-score delta -0.37, P = .009), while normative sit-to-stand test performance improved (mean Z-score delta 0.50, P = .013). Short-Form-36 Physical Component Summary score worsened (mean delta -2.6, P = .015), but CushingQoL score improved (mean delta 7.8, P < .001) at 12 weeks compared to baseline. Cushing syndrome (CS) clinical severity was predictive of postoperative GWS symptomology.

CONCLUSION

Glucocorticoid withdrawal symptoms are prevalent and persistent following surgical remission of hypercortisolism with baseline CS clinical severity predictive of postoperative GWS symptom burden. Differential changes observed in muscle function and quality of life in the early postoperative period may reflect the competing influences of GWS and recovery from hypercortisolism.

Determinants of muscle function and health-related quality of life in patients with endogenous hypercortisolism: a cross-sectional study

OBJECTIVE

Prospective data on determinants of muscle strength impairment and quality of life in patients with various subtypes and severity of endogenous hypercortisolism are lacking.

DESIGN

Single-center cross-sectional study, 2019 to 2022.

METHODS

Patients with Cushing syndrome (CS) and mild autonomous cortisol secretion (MACS) were assessed with clinical and biochemical severity scores, muscle function (nondominant hand grip strength and sit-to-stand test), and quality of life (Short Form-36 [SF36] and CushingQoL). Referent subjects were recruited from the local population undergoing abdominal imaging for reasons other than suspected adrenal disorder.

RESULTS

Of 164 patients, 81 (49%) had MACS, 14 (9%) had adrenal CS, 60 (37%) had pituitary CS, and 9 (5%) had ectopic CS. Median age was 53 years (interquartile range: 42-63 years), and 126 (77%) were women. The SF36 mental component score was similarly low in patients with MACS vs CS, but physical component score was lower in CS when compared to MACS (mean of 34.0 vs 40.5, P = .001). Compared to MACS, patients with CS had lower scores on the standardized CushingQoL (mean of 47.1 vs 34.2, P < .001). Compared to referent subjects, patients with MACS demonstrated reduced muscle strength, similar to patients with CS (mean sit to stand Z-score of -0.47 vs -0.54, P = .822). Clinical severity (r = -0.22, P = .004) but not biochemical severity was associated with sit-to-stand test performance.

CONCLUSIONS

Both patients with overt CS and MACS demonstrate reduced muscle strength and low quality of life. The clinical severity score utilized is associated with both physical and psychosocial components of CushingQoL and with the physical component of SF36.

Relevance of Endoscopic Ultrasound in Endocrinology Today: Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Type 1, Insulinoma, Primary Aldosteronism-An Expert's Perspective Based on Three Decades of Scientific and Clinical Experience

In endocrinology, endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) may be used to image the adrenals, the endocrine pancreas, and other organs where endocrine neoplasms may occur. During the recent decades, EUS has been established predominantly to assess multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1, to localize insulinomas, and to identify aldosterone-producing adenomas. EUS in endocrinology requires special skills and individual experience in order to provide reliable diagnostic information.