Plasmonics for improved photovoltaic devices

The role of surface chemistry on the toxicity of ag nanoparticles

The role of surface chemistry on the toxicity of Ag nanoparticles is investigated using Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast as a platform for evaluation. Combining the shape-controlled synthesis of Ag nanoparticles with a comprehensive characterization of their physicochemical properties, an understanding is formed of the correlation between the physicochemical parameters of nanoparticles and the inhibition growth of yeast cells upon the introduction of nanoparticles into the cell culture system. Capping agents, surface facets, and sample stability--the three experimental parameters that are inherent from the wet--chemical synthesis of Ag nanoparticles-have a strong impact on toxicity evaluation. Hence, it is important to characterize surface properties of Ag nanoparticles in the nature of biological media and to understand the role that surface chemistry may interplay to correlate the physicochemical properties of nanoparticles with their biological response upon exposure. This work demonstrates the great importance of surface chemistry in designing experiments for reliable toxicity evaluation and in mitigating the toxicity of Ag nanoparticles for their safe use in future commercialization.

Efficient photon management with nanostructures for photovoltaics

Efficient photon management schemes are crucial for improving the energy conversion efficiency of photovoltaic devices; they can lead potentially to reduced material usage and cost for these devices. In this review, photon trapping mechanisms are discussed briefly in the beginning, followed by a summary of recent progress on a number of major categories of nanostructures with intriguing photon management properties. Specifically, nanostructures including nanowires, nanopillars, nanopyramids, nanocones, nanospikes, and so forth, have been reviewed comprehensively with materials including Si, Ge, CdS, CIGS, ZnO, etc. It is found that these materials with diverse configurations have tunable photon management properties, namely, optical reflectance, transmittance and absorption. Investigations on these nanostructures have not only shed light on the fundamental interplay between photons and materials at the nanometer scale, but also suggested a potential pathway for a new generation of photovoltaic devices.

Dipole plasmon resonance induced large third-order optical nonlinearity of Au triangular nanoprism in infrared region

Au triangular nanoprisms with strong dipole plasmon absorption peak at 1240 nm were prepared by wet chemical methods. Both numerical calculations and experiments were carried out to investigate the optical properties of the samples. Finite difference time domain (FDTD) and Local Density of States (LDOS) calculations demonstrate that strong electric field enhancement and large LDOS can be obtained at tip areas of the Au triangular nanoprisms. Z scan techniques were used to characterize the nonlinear absorption, nonlinear refraction, as well as one- and two-photon figures of merit (W and T, respectively) of the sample. The results show that maximum nonlinear refractive index can be obtained around the resonance absorption wavelength of 1240 nm, detuning the wavelength from the absorption peak will lead to the decrease of the nonlinear refractive index n(2), while the nonlinear absorption coefficient β doesn't change much with the wavelength. This large wavelength dependence of n(2) and small change of β enable the sample to satisfy the all-optical switching demand of W> 1 and T< 1 easily in a large wavelength range of 1200-1300 nm. These significant nonlinear properties of the sample imply that Au triangular nanoprism is a good candidate for future optical switches in infrared optical communication wavelength region.

Fluorescence enhancement with deep-ultraviolet surface plasmon excitation

We report the experimental demonstration of fluorescence enhancement in fluorescent thin film using surface plasmon excitation in deep-ultraviolet (deep-UV) region. Surface plasmon resonance in deep-UV is excited on aluminum thin film in the Kretschmann-Raether geometry. Considering the oxidation thickness of aluminum, the experimentally measured incident angle dependence of reflectance show good agreement with Fresnel theory. Surface plasmon resonance was excited at the incident angle of 49 degrees for 266 nm p-polarized excitation light on the film of 18 nm-thick aluminum with 6.5 nm-thick alumina. Fluorescence of CdS quantum dots coated on this aluminum film was enhanced to 18-fold in intensity by the surface plasmon excitation.

Understanding the plasmonic properties of dewetting formed Ag nanoparticles for large area solar cell applications

The effects of substrates with technological interest for solar cell industry are examined on the plasmonic properties of Ag nanoparticles fabricated by dewetting technique. Both surface matching (boundary element) and propagator (finite difference time domain) methods are used in numerical simulations to describe plasmonic properties and to interpret experimental data. The uncertainty on the locations of nanoparticles by the substrate in experiment is explained by the simulations of various Ag nanoparticle configurations. The change in plasmon resonance due to the location of nanoparticles with respect to the substrate, interactions among them, their shapes, and sizes as well as dielectric properties of substrate are discussed theoretically and implications of these for the experiment are deliberated.

Composite structure of SiO2@AgNPs@p-SiNWs for enhanced broadband optical antireflection

The composite structure of SiO(2)@AgNPs@p-SiNWs based on silicon nanowires (SiNWs) produced by metal-assisted chemical etching (MaCE) method has been designed to realize the significant reflection suppression over a broad wavelength range (300 - 2500 nm). Especially, the reflectivity of the structure even below 0.3% at a wide range of 620 - 1950 nm can be achieved. It also has been demonstrated that SiO(2) capers play a dominant role in the significant reflection suppression of the composite structure.

Localized Surface Plasmons Enhanced Light Transmission into c-Silicon Solar Cells

The paper investigates the light incoupling into c-Si solar cells due to the excitation of localized surface plasmon resonances in periodic metallic nanoparticles by finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) technique. A significant enhancement of AM1.5G solar radiation transmission has been demonstrated by depositing nanoparticles of various metals on the upper surface of a semi-infinite Si substrate. Plasmonic nanostructures located close to the cell surface can scatter incident light efficiently into the cell. Al nanoparticles were found to be superior to Ag, Cu, and Au nanoparticles due to the improved transmission of light over almost the entire solar spectrum and, thus, can be a potential low-cost plasmonic metal for large-scale implementation of solar cells.

Electron-energy loss study of nonlocal effects in connected plasmonic nanoprisms

We investigate the emergence of nonlocal effects in plasmonic nanostructures through electron-energy loss spectroscopy. To theoretically describe the spatial dispersion in the metal permittivity, we develop a full three-dimensional nonlocal hydrodynamic solution of Maxwell's equations in frequency domain that implements the electron beam as a line current source. We use our numerical approach to perform an exhaustive analysis of the impact of nonlocality in the plasmonic response of single triangular prisms and connected bowtie dimers. Our results demonstrate the complexity of the interplay between nonlocal and geometric effects taking place in these structures. We show the different sensitivities to both effects of the various plasmonic modes supported by these systems. Finally, we present an experimental electron-energy loss study on gold nanoprisms connected by bridges as narrow as 1.6 nm. The comparison with our theoretical predictions enables us to reveal in a phenomenological fashion the enhancement of absorption damping that occurs in these atomistic junctions due to quantum confinement and grain boundary electron scattering.

Two-dimensional crystals: managing light for optoelectronics

Semiconducting two-dimensional (2D) crystals such as MoS2 and WSe2 exhibit unusual optical properties that can be exploited for novel optoelectronics ranging from flexible photovoltaic cells to harmonic generation and electro-optical modulation devices. Rapid progress of the field, particularly in the growth area, is beginning to enable ways to implement 2D crystals into devices with tailored functionalities. For practical device performance, a key challenge is to maximize light-matter interactions in the material, which is inherently weak due to its atomically thin nature. Light management around the 2D layers with the use of plasmonic nanostructures can provide a compelling solution.

Light-driven transformation processes of anisotropic silver nanoparticles

The photoinduced formation of silver nanoprisms from smaller silver seed particles in the presence of citrate anions is a classic example of a photomorphic reaction. In this case, light is used as a convenient tool to dynamically manipulate the shape of metal nanoparticles. To date, very little is known about the prevailing reaction mechanism of this type of photoreaction. Here we provide a detailed study of the shape transformation dynamics as a function of a range of different process parameters, such as photon energy and photon flux. For the first time, we provide direct evidence that the photochemical synthesis of silver nanoprisms from spherical seed nanoparticles proceeds via a light-activated two-dimensional coalescence mechanism. On the other hand, we could show that Ostwald ripening becomes the dominant reaction mechanism when larger silver nanoprisms are grown from photochemically synthesized smaller nanoprisms. This two-step reaction proceeds significantly faster and yields more uniform, sharper nanoprisms than the classical one-step photodevelopment process from seeds. The ability to dynamically control nanoparticle shapes and properties with light opens up novel synthesis avenues but also, more importantly, allows one to conceive new applications that exploit the nonstatic character of these nanoparticles and the ability to control and adjust their properties at will in a highly dynamic fashion.

Conductive black silicon surface made by silver nanonetwork assisted etching

Conductive black silicon surfaces (CBSSs) are fabricated by Ag network-assisted catalytic etching, with the Ag network buried in silicon for low reflectance. The CBSSs present a high light absorbance of 97% and good electrical conductivity of less than 10 Ω/□. The CBSSs might be used as anti-reflection-coating free light-harvesting devices.

Numerical simulation of ejected molten metal nanoparticles liquified by laser irradiation: interplay of geometry and dewetting

Metallic nanoparticles, liquified by fast laser irradiation, go through a rapid change of shape attempting to minimize their surface energy. The resulting nanodrops may be ejected from the substrate when the mechanisms leading to dewetting are sufficiently strong, as in the experiments involving gold nanoparticles [Habenicht et al., Science 309, 2043 (2005)]. We use a direct continuum-level approach to accurately model the process of liquid nanodrop formation and the subsequent ejection from the substrate. Our computations show a significant role of inertial effects and an elaborate interplay of initial geometry and wetting properties: e.g., we can control the direction of ejection by prescribing appropriate initial shape and/or wetting properties. The basic insight regarding ejection itself can be reached by considering a simple effective model based on an energy balance. We validate our computations by comparing directly with the experiments specified above involving the length scales measured in hundreds of nanometers and with molecular dynamics simulations on much shorter scales measured in tens of atomic diameters, as by M. Fuentes-Cabrera et al. [Phys. Rev. E 83, 041603 (2011)]. The quantitative agreement, in addition to illustrating how to control particle ejection, shows utility of continuum-based simulation in describing dynamics on nanoscale quantitatively, even in a complex setting as considered here.

OPAA template-directed synthesis and optical properties of metal nanocrystals

Ag and Cu nanocrystals (NCs) were assembled into ordered porous anodic alumina (OPAA) by a single-potential-step chronoamperometry technique. The composition, morphology, microstructure, and optical property were analyzed by X-ray diffraction, field-emission scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, selected area electron diffraction, and optical absorption spectroscopy. The results indicate that metallic NCs/OPAA composite possesses a significant surface plasmon resonance absorption. For continuous electrodeposition, metallic nanowires are smooth and uniform with face-centered cubic (fcc) single-crystalline structure; however, for interval electrodeposition, the nanowires are bamboo-like or pearl-chain-like with fcc polycrystalline structure. The length of the nanoparticle nanowires or the single-crystalline nanowires can be controlled well by adjusting the experimental cycle times or the continuous depositing time. The transverse dipole resonance of metallic NCs enhances and displays a blue shift with increasing electrodeposition time or experimental cycle times, which is consistent with Zong's results but contradictory to Duan's results. The formation mechanisms of the nanoparticle nanowires and the single-crystalline nanowires were discussed in detail.

Plasmon resonances and strong electric field enhancements in side-by-side tangent nanospheroid homodimers

The plasmon resonance and electric field enhancement in a side-by-side tangent nanospheroid homodimer (TNSHD) have been investigated theoretically by using DDA and FDTD methods, respectively. The simulation results indicate that this side-by-side TNSHD has its novel optical properties. We find that the plasmon resonance with a distinct Fano lineshape can be achieved and the electric field intensity can be enhanced strongly. The tunability of the Fano resonance could provide important applications in biosensing. The obtained electric field enhancement might open a promising pathway for surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) and light trapping in solar cells.

Self-assembled Al nanoparticles on Si and fused silica, and their application for Si solar cells

This paper presents a novel method for the self-assembly of aluminum nanoparticles on Si and fused silica. Due to high reactivity with oxygen, ex-vacuo annealing of thin deposited metal films, a method used extensively with other metals, does not work with aluminum. In the present experiment this problem was overcome by annealing the samples in-vacuo in the deposition chamber. Aluminum was thermally evaporated onto substrates at elevated temperatures (200-400 ° C) and annealed for 60 min without breaking the vacuum. It is shown that at 300 and 400 ° C the average particle size can be controlled by adjusting the amount of evaporated aluminum. Particle diameters ranging from 20 to 130 nm are demonstrated. These particles support localized surface plasmon resonances, a property that can be utilized for enhancing the efficiency of thin Si solar cells. This is explored here, and an increase in external quantum efficiency of up to 15% in a thin-film Si solar cell is demonstrated.

Complete light annihilation in an ultrathin layer of gold nanoparticles

We experimentally demonstrate that an incident light beam can be completely annihilated in a single layer of randomly distributed, widely spaced gold nanoparticle antennas. Under certain conditions, each antenna dissipates more than 10 times the number of photons that enter its geometric cross-sectional area. The underlying physics can be understood in terms of a critical coupling to localized plasmons in the nanoparticles or, equivalently, in terms of destructive optical Fano interference and so-called coherent absorption.

Nanoscale imaging of plasmonic hot spots and dark modes with the photothermal-induced resonance technique

The collective oscillation of conduction electrons, responsible for the localized surface plasmon resonances, enables engineering nanomaterials by tuning their optical response from the visible to terahertz as a function of nanostructure size, shape, and environment. While theoretical calculations helped tremendously in understanding plasmonic nanomaterials and optimizing their light matter interaction, only a few experimental techniques are available to study these materials with high spatial resolution. In this work, the photothermal-induced resonance (PTIR) technique is applied for the first time to image the dark plasmonic resonance of gold asymmetric split ring resonators (A-SRRs) in the mid-infrared (IR) spectral region with nanoscale resolution. Additionally, the chemically specific PTIR signal is used to map the local absorption enhancement of poly(methyl methacrylate) coated on A-SRRs, revealing hot spots with local enhancement factors up to ≈30 at 100 nm lateral resolution. We argue that PTIR nanoscale characterization will facilitate the engineering and application of plasmonic nanomaterials for mid-IR applications.

Extreme light absorption in thin semiconductor films wrapped around metal nanowires

Metallic and dielectric nanostructures have highly tunable resonances that have been used to increase light absorption in a variety of photovoltaic materials and device structures. Metal nanowires have also emerged as a promising candidate for high-performance transparent electrodes for local contacts. In this Letter we propose combining these electrical and optical functions. As a first step, we use rigorous solutions to Maxwell's equations to demonstrate theoretically extreme absorption in semiconductor thin films wrapped around metal nanowires. We show that there are two key principles underlying this extraordinary light trapping effect: (1) maximizing the absorption of each individual resonance by ensuring it is critically coupled and (2) increasing the total number of degenerate resonances. Inserting a metal core into a semiconductor nanowire creates such a degeneracy: polarization-dependent Mie resonances are transformed into polarization-independent Fabry-Pérot-like resonances. We demonstrate that, by reducing the polarization sensitivity and increasing the number of critically coupled modes, this hybrid coaxial nanowire geometry substantially outperforms solid semiconducting nanowires, even though the semiconductor volume is significantly reduced. These results suggest that metal nanowires with semiconductor shells might be ideal building blocks for photovoltaic and solar fuel applications.

Self-assembly based plasmonic arrays tuned by atomic layer deposition for extreme visible light absorption

Achieving complete absorption of visible light with a minimal amount of material is highly desirable for many applications, including solar energy conversion to fuel and electricity, where benefits in conversion efficiency and economy can be obtained. On a fundamental level, it is of great interest to explore whether the ultimate limits in light absorption per unit volume can be achieved by capitalizing on the advances in metamaterial science and nanosynthesis. Here, we combine block copolymer lithography and atomic layer deposition to tune the effective optical properties of a plasmonic array at the atomic scale. Critical coupling to the resulting nanocomposite layer is accomplished through guidance by a simple analytical model and measurements by spectroscopic ellipsometry. Thereby, a maximized absorption of light exceeding 99% is accomplished, of which up to about 93% occurs in a volume-equivalent thickness of gold of only 1.6 nm. This corresponds to a record effective absorption coefficient of 1.7 × 10(7) cm(-1) in the visible region, far exceeding those of solid metals, graphene, dye monolayers, and thin film solar cell materials. It is more than a factor of 2 higher than that previously obtained using a critically coupled dye J-aggregate, with a peak width exceeding the latter by 1 order of magnitude. These results thereby substantially push the limits for light harvesting in ultrathin, nanoengineered systems.

Tunable and broadband plasmonic absorption via dispersible nanoantennas with sub-10 nm gaps

Plasmonic nanoparticles have traditionally been associated with relatively narrow absorption profiles. But, for many of the most exciting potential applications for these particles, such as solar energy applications, broadband absorption is desirable. By utilizing on-wire lithography, nanostructures which absorb light through the visible and near-IR portions of the electromagnetic spectrum can be synthesized.

Self-assembled silver nanoparticles for plasmon-enhanced solar cell back reflectors: correlation between structural and optical properties

The spectra of localized surface plasmon resonances (LSPRs) in self-assembled silver nanoparticles (NPs), prepared by solid-state dewetting of thin films, are discussed in terms of their structural properties. We summarize the dependences of size and shape of NPs on the fabrication conditions with a proposed structural-phase diagram. It was found that the surface coverage distribution and the mean surface coverage (SC) size were the most appropriate statistical parameters to describe the correlation between the morphology and the optical properties of the nanostructures. The results are interpreted with theoretical predictions based on Mie theory. The broadband scattering efficiency of LSPRs in the nanostructures is discussed towards application as plasmon-enhanced back reflectors in thin-film solar cells.

Optical transport and sensing in plexcitonic nanocavities

We present a theoretical study of the optical properties of a strongly coupled metallic dimer when an ensemble of molecules is placed in the inter-particle cavity. The linking molecules are characterized by an excitonic transition which couples to the Bonding Dimer Plasmon (BDP) and the Bonding Quadrupolar Plasmon (BQP) resonances, arising from the hybridization of the dipolar and quadrupolar modes of the individual nanoparticles, respectively. As a consequence, both modes split into two coupled plasmon-exciton modes, so called plexcitons. The Charge Transfer Plasmon (CTP) resonance, involving plasmonic oscillations of the dimer as a whole, arises when the conductance of the excitonic junction is above a threshold value. The possibility of exploiting plexcitonic resonances for sensing is explored in detail. We find high sensitivity to the environment when different dielectric embedding media are considered. Contrary to standard methods, we propose a new framework for effective sensing based on the relative intensity of plexcitonic peaks.

Enhanced efficiency of light-trapping nanoantenna arrays for thin-film solar cells

We suggest a new type of efficient light-trapping structures for thin-film solar cells based on arrays of planar nanoantennas operating far from their plasmon resonances. The operation principle of our structures relies on the excitation of collective modes of the nanoantenna arrays whose electric field is localized between the adjacent metal elements. We calculate a substantial enhancement of the short-circuit photocurrent for photovoltaic layers as thin as 100-150 nm. We compare our light-trapping structures with conventional anti-reflecting coatings and demonstrate that our design approach is more efficient. We show that it may provide a general background for different types of broadband light-trapping structures compatible with large-area fabrication technologies for thin-film solar cells.

Plasmonic nano-ring arrays through patterning gold nanoparticles into interferograms

Large-area gold nanoring arrays were fabricated using interference lithography and metallic transformation through annealing of colloidal gold nanoparticles. The strong surface tension of the suspension solution and the molten gold, as well as the effective distance of these interaction mechanisms, is responsible for the creation of gold nanorings. The size and shape of the gold nanorings can be controlled by adjusting the size of the holes in the template photoresist grating, which is accomplished in the stage of interference lithography. Furthermore, the concentration of the colloidal gold nanoparticles and the annealing temperature can be utilized to achieve further optimization of the gold nanoring structures. Optical spectroscopic measurements show unique plasmonic response of the nanoring arrays in the visible and in the infrared spectral ranges, which agrees well with the theoretical simulation. This fabrication method provides a simple and low-cost route for achieving metallic nanoring arrays in a large scale for practical applications.

Fabrication of resonant patterns using thermal nano-imprint lithography for thin-film photovoltaic applications

A single-step, low-cost fabrication method to generate resonant nano-grating patterns on poly-methyl-methacrylate (PMMA; plexiglas) substrates using thermal nano-imprint lithography is reported. A guided-mode resonant structure is obtained by subsequent deposition of thin films of transparent conductive oxide and amorphous silicon on the imprinted area. Referenced to equivalent planar structures, around 25% and 45% integrated optical absorbance enhancement is observed over the 450-nm to 900-nm wavelength range in one- and two-dimensional patterned samples, respectively. The fabricated elements provided have 300-nm periods. Thermally imprinted thermoplastic substrates hold potential for low-cost fabrication of nano-patterned thin-film solar cells for efficient light management.

Synthesis of Au-SiO2 asymmetric clusters and their application in ZnO nanosheet-based dye-sensitized solar cells

A facile and novel process modified from the Stöber method has been developed to prepare Au-SiO2 asymmetric clusters with a number of Au nanoparticles off-center. The Au-SiO2 asymmetric clusters exhibit the wanted surface plasmons along with increases in the plasmonic near field and optical extinction efficiency. They are incorporated into dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) consisting of ZnO nanosheets as the photoanode, where the surface plasmonic effect on DSSCs performance arising from the Au-SiO2 asymmetric clusters is investigated. An enhancement in both the photocurrent and overall energy conversion efficiency is observed, arising from the improvement in light harvesting.

Broadband light absorption with multiple surface plasmon polariton waves excited at the interface of a metallic grating and photonic crystal

Light incident upon a periodically corrugated metal/dielectric interface can generate surface plasmon polariton (SPP) waves. This effect is used in many sensing applications. Similar metallodielectric nanostructures are used for light trapping in solar cells, but the gains are modest because SPP waves can be excited only at specific angles and with one linear polarization state of incident light. Here we report the optical absorptance of a metallic grating coupled to silicon oxide/oxynitride layers with a periodically varying refractive index, i.e., a 1D photonic crystal. These structures show a dramatic enhancement relative to those employing a homogeneous dielectric material. Multiple SPP waves can be activated, and both s- and p-polarized incident light can be efficiently trapped. Many SPP modes are weakly bound and display field enhancements that extend throughout the dielectric layers. These modes have significantly longer propagation lengths than the single SPP modes excited at the interface of a metallic grating and a uniform dielectric. These results suggest that metallic gratings coupled to photonic crystals could have utility for light trapping in photovoltaics, sensing, and other applications.

Degradation of polypropylene carbonate through plasmonic heating

We report the thermal degradation of a solid film of polypropylene carbonate, driven by the photothermal effect of gold nanoparticles. We provide characterization of the products of this chemical reaction and use the known activation barrier for this chemical reaction to discuss the temperatures obtained in the film. In addition, we report the efficiency of the reaction as a function of nanoparticle concentration and find nanoparticles to be significantly more effective than an organic dye at driving this reaction.

Fluorescence ratiometric properties induced by nanoparticle plasmonics and nanoscale dye dynamics

Nanoscale transport of merocyanine 540 within/near the plasmon field of gold nanoparticles was recognized as an effective inducer of single-excitation dual-emission ratiometric properties. With a high concentration of the signal transducer (ammonium), a 700% increase in fluorescence was observed at the new red-shifted emission maximum, compared to a nanoparticle free sensor membrane. A previously nonrecognized isosbestic point is demonstrated at 581.4 ± 0.1 nm. The mechanism can be utilized for enhanced and simplified ratiometric optical chemical sensors and potentially for thin film engineering to make solar cells more effective and stable by a broader and more regulated absorption.

Horizontal Silicon Nanowires with Radial p-n Junctions: A Platform for Unconventional Solar Cells

The silicon p-n junction is the most successful solar energy technology to date, yet it accounts for a marginal percentage of worldwide energy production. To change the status quo, a disruptive technological breakthrough is needed. In this Perspective, we discuss the potential for complex silicon nanowires to serve as a platform for next-generation photovoltaic devices. We review the synthesis, electrical characteristics, and optical properties of core/shell silicon nanowires that are subwavelength in diameter and contain radial p-n junctions. We highlight the unique features of these nanowires, such as optical antenna effects that concentrate light and intense built-in electric fields that enable ultrafast charge-carrier separation. We advocate a paradigm in which nanowires are arranged in periodic horizontal arrays to form ultrathin devices. Unlike conventional planar silicon, nanowire structures provide the flexibility to incorporate multiple semiconductor, dielectric, and metallic materials in a single system, providing the foundation for a disruptive, unconventional solar energy technology.

Wafer-scale fabrication of plasmonic crystals from patterned silicon templates prepared by nanosphere lithography

By combining nanosphere lithography with template stripping, silicon wafers were patterned with hexagonal arrays of nanowells or pillars. These silicon masters were then replicated in gold by metal evaporation, resulting in wafer-scale hexagonal gratings for plasmonic applications. In the nanosphere lithography step, two-dimensional colloidal crystals of 510 nm diameter polystyrene spheres were assembled at the air-water interface and transferred to silicon wafers. The spheres were etched in oxygen plasma in order to define their size for masking of the silicon wafer. For fabrication of metallic nanopillar arrays, an alumina film was grown over the nanosphere layer and the spheres were then removed by bath sonication. The well pattern was defined in the silicon wafer by reactive ion etching in a chlorine plasma. For fabrication of metal nanowell arrays, the nanosphere monolayer was used directly as a mask and exposed areas of the silicon wafer were plasma-etched anisotropically in SF6/Ar. Both techniques could be used to produce subwavelength metal replica structures with controlled pillar or well diameter, depth, and profile, on the wafer scale, without the use of direct writing techniques to fabricate masks or masters.

Control and near-field detection of surface plasmon interference patterns

The tailoring of electromagnetic near-field properties is the central task in the field of nanophotonics. In addition to 2D optics for optical nanocircuits, confined and enhanced electric fields are utilized in detection and sensing, photovoltaics, spatially localized spectroscopy (nanoimaging), as well as in nanolithography and nanomanipulation. For practical purposes, it is necessary to develop easy-to-use methods for controlling the electromagnetic near-field distribution. By imaging optical near-fields using a scanning near-field optical microscope, we demonstrate that surface plasmon polaritons propagating from slits along the metal-dielectric interface form tunable interference patterns. We present a simple way how to control the resulting interference patterns both by variation of the angle between two slits and, for a fixed slit geometry, by a proper combination of laser beam polarization and inhomogeneous far-field illumination of the structure. Thus the modulation period of interference patterns has become adjustable and new variable patterns consisting of stripelike and dotlike motifs have been achieved, respectively.

Au nanocrystal array/silicon nanoantennas as wavelength-selective photoswitches

Au nanocrystal array/silicon nanoantennas exhibiting wavelength-selective photocurrent enhancement were successfully fabricated by a facile and inexpensive method combining colloidal lithography (CL) and a metal-assisted chemical etching (MaCE) process. The localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) response and wavelength-selective photocurrent enhancement characteristics were achieved by tuning the depth of immersion of Au nanocrystal arrays in silicon through a MaCE process. The wavelength selectivity of photocurrent enhancement contributed by LSPR induced local field amplification was confirmed by simulated near-field distribution. In addition, it can be integrated to well-developed Si-based manufacturing process. These characteristics make Au nanocrystal array/Si nanoantennas promising as low power-consumption photoswitches and nano-optoelectronic and photonic communication devices.

Efficient light harvesting with micropatterned 3D pyramidal photoanodes in dye-sensitized solar cells

3D TiO2 photoanodes in dye-sensitized solar cells (DSCs) are fabricated by the soft lithographic technique for efficient light trapping. An extended strategy to the construction of randomized pyramid structure is developed by the conventional wet-etching of a silicon wafer for low-cost fabrication. Moreover, the futher enhancement of light absorption resulting in photocurrent increase is achieved by combining the 3D photoanode with a conventional scattering layer.

Self-organized broadband light trapping in thin film amorphous silicon solar cells

Nanostructured glass substrates endowed with high aspect ratio one-dimensional corrugations are prepared by defocused ion beam erosion through a self-organized gold (Au) stencil mask. The shielding action of the stencil mask is amplified by co-deposition of gold atoms during ion bombardment. The resulting glass nanostructures enable broadband anti-reflection functionality and at the same time ensure a high efficiency for diffuse light scattering (Haze). It is demonstrated that the patterned glass substrates exhibit a better photon harvesting than the flat glass substrate in p-i-n type thin film a-Si:H solar cells.

Manipulating and probing the growth of plasmonic nanoparticle arrays using light

Highly ordered self-assembled silver nanoparticle (NP) arrays have been produced by glancing angle deposition on faceted c-plane Al2O3 templates. The NP shape can be tuned by changing the substrate temperature during deposition. Reflectance anisotropy spectroscopy has been used to monitor the plasmonic evolution of the sample during the growth. The structures showed a strong dichroic response related to NP anisotropy and dipolar coupling. Furthermore, multipolar resonances due to sharp edge effects between NP and substrate were observed. Analytical and numerical methods have been used to explain the results and extract semi-quantitative information on the morphology of the NPs. The results provide insights on the growth mechanisms by the glancing angle deposition. Finally, it has been shown that the NP morphology can be manipulated by a simple illumination of the surface with an intense light source, inducing changes in the optical response. This opens up new possibilities for engineering plasmonic structure over large active areas.

Investigating the multiple roles of polyvinylpyrrolidone for a general methodology of oxide encapsulation

Growing oxide shells on seed nanoparticles requires the control of several processes: (a) the nucleation and growth of the shell material; (b) the "wetting" of the shell material on the seeds; and (c) the aggregation of the nanoparticles. These processes are influenced by a number of factors, many of which are related. Without understanding the interdependence of these contributing factors, it is difficult to circumvent problems and achieve rational synthesis. We first did a case study on encapsulating Au nanoparticles with ZnO to understand the multiple roles of polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) and their dependence on other factors. We developed a general method for coating ZnO on a variety of seeds, including metals, oxides, polymer nanoparticles, graphene oxide, and carbon nanotube. This method can be further extended to include Fe3O4, MnO, Co2O3, TiO2, Eu2O3, Tb2O3, Gd2O3, β-Ni(OH)2, ZnS, and CdS as the shell materials. The understanding obtained in this systematic study will aid rational design and synthesis of other core-shell nanostructures.

Coherent effects in the scattering of light from two-dimensional rough metal surfaces

We investigate numerically multiple light-scattering phenomena for two-dimensional randomly rough metallic surfaces, where surface plasmon polaritons (SPPs) mediate several surface scattering effects. The scattering problem is solved by numerical solution of the reduced Rayleigh equation for reflection. The multiple scattering phenomena of enhanced backscattering and enhanced forward scattering are observed in the same system, and their presence is due to the excitation of SPPs. The numerical results discussed are qualitatively different from previous results for one-dimensionally rough surfaces, as one-dimensional surfaces have a limited influence on the polarization of light.

Nanomaterial processing using self-assembly-bottom-up chemical and biological approaches

Nanotechnology is touted as the next logical sequence in technological evolution. This has led to a substantial surge in research activities pertaining to the development and fundamental understanding of processes and assembly at the nanoscale. Both top-down and bottom-up fabrication approaches may be used to realize a range of well-defined nanostructured materials with desirable physical and chemical attributes. Among these, the bottom-up self-assembly process offers the most realistic solution toward the fabrication of next-generation functional materials and devices. Here, we present a comprehensive review on the physical basis behind self-assembly and the processes reported in recent years to direct the assembly of nanoscale functional blocks into hierarchically ordered structures. This paper emphasizes assembly in the synthetic domain as well in the biological domain, underscoring the importance of biomimetic approaches toward novel materials. In particular, two important classes of directed self-assembly, namely, (i) self-assembly among nanoparticle-polymer systems and (ii) external field-guided assembly are highlighted. The spontaneous self-assembling behavior observed in nature that leads to complex, multifunctional, hierarchical structures within biological systems is also discussed in this review. Recent research undertaken to synthesize hierarchically assembled functional materials have underscored the need as well as the benefits harvested in synergistically combining top-down fabrication methods with bottom-up self-assembly.

Active layer-incorporated, spectrally tuned Au/SiO2 core/shell nanorod-based light trapping for organic photovoltaics

We demonstrate that incorporation of octadecyltrimethoxysilane (OTMS)-functionalized, spectrally tuned, gold/silica (Au/SiO2) core/shell nanospheres and nanorods into the active layer of an organic photovoltaic (OPV) device led to an increase in photoconversion efficiency (PCE). A silica shell layer was added onto Au core nanospheres and nanorods in order to provide an electrically insulating surface that does not interfere with carrier generation and transport inside the active layer. Functionalization of the Au/SiO2 core/shell nanoparticles with the OTMS organic ligand was then necessary to transfer the Au/SiO2 core/shell nanoparticles from an ethanol solution into an OPV polymer-compatible solvent, such as dichlorobenzene. The OTMS-functionalized Au/SiO2 core/shell nanorods and nanospheres were then incorporated into the active layers of two OPV polymer systems: a poly(3-hexylthiophene):[6,6]-phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester (P3HT:PCB60M) OPV device and a poly[2,6-4,8-di(5-ethylhexylthienyl)benzo[1,2-b;3,4-b]dithiophene-alt-5-dibutyloctyl-3,6-bis(5-bromothiophen-2-yl)pyrrolo[3,4-c]pyrrole-1,4-dione] (PBDTT-DPP:PC60BM) OPV device. For the P3HT:PC60BM polymer with a band edge of ~700 nm, the addition of the core/shell nanorods with an aspect ratio (AR) of ~2.5 (extinction peak ~670 nm) resulted in a 7.1% improvement in PCE, while for the PBDTT-DPP:PC60BM polymer with a band edge of ~860 nm, the addition of core/shell nanorods with an AR of ~4 (extinction peak ~830 nm) resulted in a 14.4% improvement in PCE. The addition of Au/SiO2 core/shell nanospheres to the P3HT:PC60BM polymer resulted in a 2.7% improvement in PCE, while their addition to a PBDTT-DPP:PC60BM polymer resulted in a 9.1% improvement. The PCE and Jsc enhancements were consistent with external quantum efficiency (EQE) measurements, and the EQE enhancements spectrally matched the extinction spectra of Au/SiO2 nanospheres and nanorods in both OPV polymer systems.

Plasmonic organic photovoltaic devices with graphene based buffer layers for stability and efficiency enhancement

Enhancement of photoconversion efficiency (PCE) and stability in bulk heterojunction (BHJ) plasmonic organic photovoltaic devices (OPVs) incorporating graphene oxide (GO) thin films as the hole transport layer (HTL) and surfactant free Au nanoparticles (NPs) between the GO HTL and the photoactive layers is demonstrated. In particular the plasmonic GO-based devices exhibited a performance enhancement by 30% compared to the devices using the traditional PEDOT:PSS layer. Likewise, they preserved 50% of their initial PCE after 45 h of continuous illumination, contrary to the PEDOT:PSS-based ones that die after 20 h. The performance increase is attributed to the improved photocurrent and fill factor owing to the enhanced exciton generation rate due to NP-induced plasmon absorption enhancement. Besides this, the stability enhancement can be attributed to limited oxygen and/or indium diffusion from the indium tin oxide (ITO) electrode into the active layer. The industrial exploitation of composite GO/NPs as efficient buffer layers in OPVs is envisaged.

Size-dependent permittivity and intrinsic optical anisotropy of nanometric gold thin films: a density functional theory study

Physical properties of materials are known to be different from the bulk at the nanometer scale. In this context, the dependence of optical properties of nanometric gold thin films with respect to film thickness is studied using density functional theory (DFT). We find that the in-plane plasma frequency of the gold thin film decreases with decreasing thickness and that the optical permittivity tensor is highly anisotropic as well as thickness dependent. Quantitative knowledge of planar metal film permittivity's thickness dependence can improve the accuracy and reliability of the designs of plasmonic devices and electromagnetic metamaterials. The strong anisotropy observed may become an alternative method of realizing indefinite media.

Near-field effects and energy transfer in hybrid metal-oxide nanostructures

One of the big challenges of the 21st century is the utilization of nanotechnology for energy technology. Nanoscale structures may provide novel functionality, which has been demonstrated most convincingly by successful applications such as dye-sensitized solar cells introduced by M. Grätzel. Applications in energy technology are based on the transfer and conversion of energy. Following the example of photosynthesis, this requires a combination of light harvesting, transfer of energy to a reaction center, and conversion to other forms of energy by charge separation and transfer. This may be achieved by utilizing hybrid nanostructures, which combine metallic and nonmetallic components. Metallic nanostructures can interact strongly with light. Plasmonic excitations of such structures can cause local enhancement of the electrical field, which has been utilized in spectroscopy for many years. On the other hand, the excited states in metallic structures decay over very short lifetimes. Longer lifetimes of excited states occur in nonmetallic nanostructures, which makes them attractive for further energy transfer before recombination or relaxation sets in. Therefore, the combination of metallic nanostructures with nonmetallic materials is of great interest. We report investigations of hybrid nanostructured model systems that consist of a combination of metallic nanoantennas (fabricated by nanosphere lithography, NSL) and oxide nanoparticles. The oxide particles were doped with rare-earth (RE) ions, which show a large shift between absorption and emission wavelengths, allowing us to investigate the energy-transfer processes in detail. The main focus is on TiO2 nanoparticles doped with Eu(3+), since the material is interesting for applications such as the generation of hydrogen by photocatalytic splitting of water molecules. We use high-resolution techniques such as confocal fluorescence microscopy for the investigation of energy-transfer processes. The experiments are supported by simulations of the electromagnetic field enhancement in the vicinity of well-defined nanoantennas. The results show that the presence of the nanoparticle layer can modify the field enhancement significantly. In addition, we find that the fluorescent intensities observed in the experiments are affected by agglomeration of the nanoparticles. In order to further elucidate the possible influence of agglomeration and quenching effects in the vicinity of the nanoantennas, we have used a commercial organic pigment containing Eu, which exhibits an extremely narrow particle size distribution and no significant agglomeration. We demonstrate that quenching of the Eu fluorescence can be suppressed by covering the nanoantennas with a 10 nm thick SiO x layer.