Motor unit behaviour and contractile changes during fatigue in the human first dorsal interosseus

Spike-triggered average torque and muscle fiber conduction velocity of low-threshold motor units following submaximal endurance contractions

The motor unit twitch torque is modified by sustained contraction, but the association to changes in muscle fiber electrophysiological properties is not fully known. Thus twitch torque, muscle fiber conduction velocity, and action potential properties of single motor units were assessed in 11 subjects following an isometric submaximal contraction of the tibialis anterior muscle until endurance. The volunteers activated a target motor unit at the minimum discharge rate in eight 3-min-long contractions, three before and five after an isometric contraction at 40% of the maximal torque, sustained until endurance. Multichannel surface electromyogram signals and joint torque were averaged with the target motor unit potential as trigger. Discharge rate (mean ± SE, 6.6 ± 0.2 pulses/s) and interpulse interval variability (33.3 ± 7.0%) were not different in the eight contractions. Peak twitch torque and recruitment threshold increased significantly (93 ± 29 and 12 ± 5%, P < 0.05) in the contraction immediately after the endurance task with respect to the preendurance values (0.94 ± 0.26 mN·m and 3.7 ± 0.5% of the maximal torque), whereas time to peak of the twitch torque did not change (74.4 ± 10.1 ms). Muscle fiber conduction velocity decreased and action potential duration increased in the contraction after the endurance (6.3 ± 1.8 and 9.8 ± 1.8%, respectively, P < 0.05; preendurance values, 3.9 ± 0.2 m/s and 11.1 ± 0.8 ms), whereas the surface potential peak-to-peak amplitude did not change (27.1 ± 3.1 μV). There was no significant correlation between the relative changes in muscle fiber conduction velocity or surface potential duration and in peak twitch torque ( R2 = 0.04 and 0.10, respectively). In conclusion, modifications in peak twitch torque of low-threshold motor units with sustained contraction are mainly determined by mechanisms not related to changes in action potential shape and in its propagation velocity.

Recruitment Patterns in Human Skeletal Muscle During Electrical Stimulation

Electromyostimulation (EMS) incorporates the use of electrical current to activate skeletal muscle and facilitate contraction. It is commonly used in clinical settings to mimic voluntary contractions and enhance the rehabilitation of human skeletal muscles. Although the beneficial effects of EMS are widely accepted, discrepancies concerning the specific responses to EMS versus voluntary actions exist. The unique effects of EMS have been attributed to several mechanisms, most notably a reversal of the recruitment pattern typically associated with voluntary muscle activation. This perspective outlines the authors' contention that electrical stimulation recruits motor units in a nonselective, spatially fixed, and temporally synchronous pattern. Furthermore, it synthesizes the evidence that supports the contention that this recruitment pattern contributes to increased muscle fatigue when compared with voluntary actions. The authors believe the majority of evidence suggests that EMS-induced motor unit recruitment is nonselective and that muscle fibers are recruited without obvious sequencing related to fiber types.

Effect of temperature on spike-triggered average torque and electrophysiological properties of low-threshold motor units

The aim of the study was to jointly analyze temperature-induced changes in low-threshold single motor unit twitch torque and action potential properties. Joint torque, multichannel surface, and intramuscular electromyographic signals were recorded from the tibialis anterior muscle of 12 subjects who were instructed to identify the activity of a target motor unit using intramuscular electromyographic signals as feedback. The target motor unit was activated at the minimum stable discharge rate in seven 3-min-long contractions. The first three contractions (C1-C3) were performed at 33 degrees C skin temperature. After 5 min, the subject performed three contractions at 33 degrees C (T1), 39 degrees C (T2), and 45 degrees C (T3), followed by a contraction at 33 degrees C (C4) skin temperature. Twitch torque and multichannel surface action potential of the target motor unit were obtained by spike-triggered averaging. Discharge rate (mean +/- SE, 7.1 +/- 0.5 pulses/s), interpulse interval variability (35.8 +/- 9.2%), and recruitment threshold (4.5 +/- 0.4% of the maximal voluntary torque) were not different among the seven contractions. None of the investigated variables were different among C1-C3, T1, and C4. Conduction velocity and peak twitch torque increased with temperature (P < 0.05; T1: 3.53 +/- 0.21 m/s and 0.82 +/- 0.23 mN x m, T2: 3.93 +/- 0.24 m/s and 1.17 +/- 0.36 mN x m, T3: 4.35 +/- 0.25 m/s and 1.46 +/- 0.40 mN x m, respectively). Twitch time to peak and surface action potential peak-to-peak amplitude were smaller in T3 (61.8 +/- 2.0 ms and 27.4 +/- 5.1 microV, respectively) than in T1 (71.9 +/- 4.1 ms and 35.0 +/- 6.5 microV, respectively) (P < 0.05). The relative increase in conduction velocity between T1 and T3 was positively correlated (P < 0.05) with the increase in twitch peak amplitude (r2 = 0.48), with the decrease in twitch time to peak (r2 = 0.43), and with the decrease in action potential amplitude (r2 = 0.50). In conclusion, temperature-induced modifications in fiber membrane conduction properties may have a direct effect on contractile motor unit properties.

Experimental muscle pain reduces initial motor unit discharge rates during sustained submaximal contractions

The aim of this human study was to investigate the effect of experimentally induced muscle pain on the modifications of motor unit discharge rate during sustained, constant-force contractions. Intramuscular and multichannel surface electromyographic (EMG) signals were collected from the right and left tibialis anterior muscle of 11 volunteers. The subjects performed two 4-min-long isometric contractions at 25% of the maximal dorsiflexion torque, separated by a 20-min rest. Before the beginning of the second contraction, hypertonic (painful; right leg) or isotonic (nonpainful; left leg) saline was injected into the tibialis anterior. Pain intensity scores did not change significantly in the first 150 s of the painful contraction. Exerted torque and its coefficient of variation were the same for the painful and nonpainful contractions. Motor unit discharge rate was higher in the beginning of the nonpainful contraction than the painful contraction on the right side [means ± SE, 11.3 ± 0.2 vs. 10.6 ± 0.2 pulses/s (pps); P < 0.01] whereas it was the same for the two contractions on the left side (11.6 ± 0.2 vs. 11.5 ± 0.2 pps). The decrease in discharge rate in 4 min was smaller for the painful (0.4 ± 0.1 pps) than for the control contractions (1.3 ± 0.1 pps). Initial value and decrease in motor unit conduction velocity were not different in the four contractions (right leg, 4.0 ± 0.1 m/s with decrease of 0.6 ± 0.1 m/s in 4 min; left leg, 4.1 ± 0.1 m/s with 0.7 ± 0.1 m/s decrease). In conclusion, stimulation of nociceptive afferents by injection of hypertonic saline did not alter motor unit conduction velocity but reduced the initial motor unit discharge rates and the difference between initial and final discharge rates during sustained contraction.

Experimental muscle pain increases mechanomyographic signal activity during sub-maximal isometric contractions

This study was designed to investigate the local effect of experimental muscle pain on the MMG and the surface EMG during a range of sub-maximal isometric contractions. Muscle pain was induced by injections of hypertonic saline into the biceps brachii muscle in 12 subjects. Injections of isotonic saline served as a control. Pain intensity and location, MMG and surface EMG from the biceps brachii were assessed during static isometric (0%, 10%, 30%, 50% and, 70% of the maximal voluntary contraction) and ramp isometric (0-50% of the maximal voluntary contraction) elbow flexions. MMG and surface EMG signals were analyzed in the time and frequency domain. Experimentally induced muscle pain induced an increase in root mean square values of the MMG signal while no changes were observed in the surface EMG. Most likely this increase reflects changes in the mechanical contractile properties of the muscle and indicates compensatory mechanisms, i.e. decreased firing rate and increased twitch force to maintain a constant force output in presence of experimental muscle pain. Under well-controlled conditions, MMG recordings may be more sensitive than surface EMG recordings and clinically useful for detecting non-invasively increased muscle mechanical contributions during muscle pain conditions.

Intraneural microstimulation of motor axons in the study of human single motor units

Single motor unit activity has been studied in depth since the first intramuscular electrodes were developed more than 70 years ago. Many techniques have been combined or used in isolation since then. Intraneural motor axon microstimulation allows the detailed study of single motor units in awake human subjects in a manner most analogous to that used in reduced animal preparations. A microelectrode, inserted percutaneously into a peripheral nerve, stimulates the axon of a single alpha-motoneuron at a site remote from the contracting muscle, allowing detailed analyses of the contractile properties of a single motor unit in an otherwise quiescent muscle, that is, without interference of simultaneously active motor units or the presence of an electrode within the muscle. The methods and results obtained using this technique are described and compared to those of other studies of single motor units in human subjects. Differences have been found between human and animal motor units and between motor units of various muscles. Studying human and animal motor units using an analogous technique provides insight into the interpretation of human data when results differ from animal data, and when human motor units cannot be examined in the same way, or at a similar level of detail, as animal motor units.

Motor-unit activity differs with load type during a fatiguing contraction

Despite a similar rate of change in average electromyographic (EMG) activity, previous studies have observed different rates of change in mean arterial pressure, heart rate, perceived exertion, and fluctuations in motor output during the performance of fatiguing contractions that involved different types of loads. To obtain a more direct measure of the motor output from the spinal cord, the purpose of this study was to compare the discharge characteristics of the same motor unit in biceps brachii during the performance of two types of fatiguing contractions. In separate tests with the upper arm vertical and the elbow flexed to 1.57 rad, the seated subjects maintained either a constant upward force at the wrist (force task) or a constant elbow angle (position task) for a prescribed duration. The force and position tasks were performed in random order at a target force equal to 3.5 +/- 2.1% (mean +/- SD) of the maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) force above the recruitment threshold of the isolated motor unit. Each subject maintained the two tasks for an identical duration (161 +/- 96 s) at a mean target force of 22.2 +/- 13.4% MVC (range: 3-49% MVC). The dependent variables included the discharge characteristics of the same motor unit in biceps brachii, fluctuations in motor output (force or acceleration), mean arterial pressure, heart rate, and rating of perceived exertion. Despite similar increases in the amplitude of the averaged EMG (% MVC) for the elbow flexor muscles during both tasks (P = 0.60), the rates of increase in mean arterial pressure (P < 0.001), rating of perceived exertion (P = 0.023), and fluctuations in motor output (P = 0.003) were greater during the position task compared with the force task. Consistent with these differences, mean discharge rate declined at a greater rate during the position task (P = 0.03), and the coefficient of variation for discharge rate increased only during the position task (P = 0.02). Furthermore, more motor units were recruited during the position task compared with the force task (P = 0.01). These findings indicate that despite a comparable net muscle torque, the rate of increase in the motor output from the spinal cord was greater during the position task.

Associations between force and fatigue in fast-twitch motor units of a cat hindlimb muscle

Associations were quantified between the control force and fatigue-induced force decline in 22 single fast-twitch-fatigable motor units of 5 deeply anesthetized adult cats. The units were subjected to intermittent stimulation at 1 train/s for 360 s. Two stimulation patterns were delivered in a pseudo-random manner. The first was a 500-ms train with constant interpulse intervals. The second pattern had the same number of stimuli, mean stimulus rate, and stimulus duration, but the stimulus pulses were rearranged to increase the force produced by the units in the control (prefatigue) state. The associations among the control peak tetanic force of these units, 3 indices of fatigue, and total cumulative force during fatiguing contractions were dependent, in part, on the stimulation pattern used to produce fatigue. The associations were also dependent, albeit to a lesser extent, on the force measure (peak vs. integrated) and the fatigue index used to quantify fatigue. It is proposed that during high-force fatiguing contractions, neural mechanisms are potentially available to delay and reduce the fatigue of fast-twitch-fatigable units for brief, but functionally relevant, periods. In contrast, the fatigue of slow-twitch fatigue-resistant units seems more likely to be controlled largely, if not exclusively, by metabolic processes within their muscle cells.Key words: cat, catch-like property, fatigue, force, motor units, size principle.

The time course of the motoneurone afterhyperpolarization is related to motor unit twitch speed in human skeletal muscle

The relationship between the electrophysiological properties of motoneurones and their muscle units has been established in animal models. A functionally significant relationship exists whereby motoneurones with long post-spike afterhyperpolarizations (AHPs) innervate slow contracting muscle units. The purpose of this study was to determine whether the time course of the AHP as measured by its time constant is associated with the contractile properties of its muscle unit in humans. Using an intramuscular fine wire electrode, 46 motor units were recorded in eight subjects as they held a low force contraction of the first dorsal interosseus muscle for approximately 10 min. By applying a recently validated transform to the interspike interval histogram, the mean voltage versus time trajectory of the motoneurone AHP was determined. Spike-triggered averaging was used to extract the muscle unit twitch from the whole muscle force with strict control over force variability and motor unit discharge rate (interspike intervals between 120 and 200 ms). The AHP time constant was positively correlated to the time to half-force decay (rho = 0.36, P < 0.05) and twitch duration (rho = 0.57, P < 0.001); however, time to peak force failed to reach significance (rho = 0.27, P < 0.07). These results suggest that a similar functional relationship exists in humans between the motoneurone AHP and the muscle unit contractile properties.

Influence of aging on sex differences in muscle fatigability

The purpose of this study was to compare time to task failure for a sustained isometric contraction performed at a submaximal intensity with elbow flexor muscles by young and old men and women. Twenty-seven young (14 men and 13 women, 18-35 yr) and 18 old (10 men and 8 women, 65-80 yr) adults sustained an isometric contraction at 20% of maximal voluntary contraction torque until target torque could no longer be achieved for > or = 5 s. Young adults were stronger than old adults (66.8 +/- 17.9 vs. 47.7 +/- 18.1 N x m, P < 0.05), and men were stronger than women (69.8 +/- 17.9 vs. 47.1 +/- 15.3 N x m, P < 0.05), with no interaction between age and sex (P > 0.05). Time to task failure was longer for old than for young adults (22.8 +/- 9.1 vs. 14.4 +/- 7.6 min, P < 0.05) and for young women than for young men (18.3 +/- 8.0 vs. 10.8 +/- 5.2, P < 0.05), but there was no difference between old women and men (21.3 +/- 10.7 and 24.1 +/- 8.0 min, respectively, P > 0.05) or between young women and old adults (P > 0.05). Mean arterial pressure, heart rate, average electromyographic (EMG) activity, and torque fluctuations of elbow flexor muscles increased during the fatiguing contraction (P < 0.05) for all subjects. Rates of increase in mean arterial pressure, heart rate, and torque fluctuations were greater for young men and old adults, with no differences between old men and women (P > 0.05). Similarly, the rate of increase in EMG activity was greater for young men than for the other three groups. EMG bursts were less frequent for old adults (P < 0.05) at the end of the fatiguing contraction, and this was accompanied by reduced fluctuations in torque. Consequently, time to task failure was related to target torque for young, but not old, adults, and differences in task duration were accompanied by parallel changes in the pressor response.

Simulation of the motor units control during a fast elbow flexion in the sagittal plane

The fact that muscles are composed of different Motor Units (MUs) is often neglected when investigating motor control by macro models of human musculo-skeletal-joint systems. Each muscle is associated with one control signal. This simplification leads to difficulties when mechanical and electrical manifestations of the muscle activity are juxtaposed. That is why a new approach for muscle modelling was recently proposed (Journal of Biomechanics 2002;35:1123-1135). It is based on MUs twitches and a Hierarchical Genetic Algorithm (HGA) is implemented for choosing the moments of activation of the individual MUs, thus simulating the control of the nervous system. Its basic benefit is obtaining the complete information about the mechanical and activation behaviour of all MUs, respectively muscles, during the whole motion. Its possibilities are demonstrated when simulating fast elbow flexion. Three flexor and two extensor muscles, each consisting of approximately real number of different types of MUs, are modelled. The task is highly indeterminate and the optimization is performed according to a fitness function that is an assessed combination of criteria (minimal deviation from the given joint moment, minimal total muscle force and minimal MUs activation). The influence of the weight of the first criterion (the one that reflects the importance of the movement accuracy on the predicted results), is investigated. Two variants concerning the muscle MUs structure are also compared: each muscle is composed of four distinct types MUs and the MUs twitch parameters are uniformly distributed.

Muscle Fatigue and the Mechanisms of Task Failure

An alternative approach in the study of muscle fatigue is to address the question, "What causes task failure during a fatiguing contraction?" This approach is described by considering how variation in the type of load supported and contraction intensity influence both the time to task failure and the centrally mediated adjustments in reflex activity and motor unit behavior.

Men are more fatigable than strength-matched women when performing intermittent submaximal contractions

The purpose of this study was to compare the time to task failure for a series of intermittent submaximal contractions performed with the elbow flexor muscles by men and women who were matched for strength (n = 20, 18-34 yr). The fatigue task comprised isometric contractions at 50% of maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) torque (6-s contraction, 4-s rest). The MVC torque was similar for the men and women [64.8 +/- 9.2 (SD) vs. 62.2 +/- 7.9 N.m; P > 0.05]. However, the time to task failure was longer for the women (1,408 +/- 1,133 vs. 513 +/- 194 s; P < 0.05), despite the similar torque levels. The mean arterial pressure, heart rate, and rating of perceived exertion started and ended at similar values for the men and women, but the rate of increase was less for the women. The rate of increase in the average of the rectified electromyogram (AEMG; % peak MVC) for the elbow flexor muscles was less for the women: the AEMG was greater for the men compared with the women at task failure (72 +/- 28 vs. 50 +/- 21%; P < 0.05), despite similar AEMG values at the start of the fatiguing contraction (32 +/- 9 vs. 36 +/- 13%). These results indicate that for intermittent contractions performed with the elbow flexor muscles 1) the sex difference in time to task failure was not explained by the absolute strength of the men and women, but involved another mechanism that is present during perfused conditions, and 2) men required a more rapid increase in descending drive to maintain a similar torque.

Recruitment order of motor units in human vastus lateralis muscle is maintained during fatiguing contractions

Motor-unit firing patterns were studied in the vastus lateralis muscle of five healthy young men [21.4 +/- 0.9 (SD) yr] during a series of isometric knee extensions performed to exhaustion. Each contraction was held at a constant torque level, set to 20% of the maximal voluntary contraction at the beginning of the experiment. Electromyographic signals, recorded via a quadrifilar fine wire electrode, were processed with the precision decomposition technique to identify the firing times of individual motor units. In repeat experiments, whole-muscle mechanical properties were measured during the fatigue protocol using electrical stimulation. The main findings were a monotonic decrease in the recruitment threshold of all motor units and the progressive recruitment of new units, all without a change of the recruitment order. Motor units from the same subject showed a similar time course of threshold decline, but this decline varied among subjects (mean threshold decrease ranged from 23 to 73%). The mean threshold decline was linearly correlated (R2 >or= 0.96) with a decline in the elicited peak tetanic torque. In summary, the maintenance of recruitment order during fatigue strongly supports the notion that the observed common recruitment adaptations were a direct consequence of an increased excitatory drive to the motor unit pool. It is suggested that the increased central drive was necessary to compensate for the loss in force output from motor units whose muscle fibers were actively contracting. We therefore conclude that the control scheme of motor-unit recruitment remains invariant during fatigue at least in relatively large muscles performing submaximal isometric contractions.

Effects of experimental muscle pain on mechanical properties of single motor units in human masseter

OBJECTIVE

Muscle pain is known to influence muscle activity but the details of its effects on the mechanical properties of single motor units (SMU) have not been described. We have recently reported a decreased firing rate of SMU in the human masseter muscle during painful contractions with a constant force output. Force output can be modulated by the SMU discharge rate in relation to the contractile properties of SMU. Therefore, the objective of the present study was to measure the mechanical properties of SMU in the masseter to clarify the mechanism which underlies the decrease in SMU firing rate during jaw-muscle pain.

METHODS

A spike-triggered averaging (STA) technique was used to determine the mechanical properties of low-threshold SMU in the masseter muscle recorded with fine wire electrodes during a voluntary isometric contraction. The twitch amplitude, contraction time, and half-relaxation time were determined from the averaged force records before and during experimental jaw-muscle pain induced by injection of 0.2 ml (100 microg/ml) capsaicin in 8 healthy subjects. Injections of 0.2 ml isotonic saline served as a non-painful control in 11 healthy subjects.

RESULTS

The twitch amplitude was significantly increased during capsaicin-evoked muscle pain (P<0.001) without significant changes of half-relaxation time and contraction time. No significant changes in SMU twitch properties were observed during the control injections.

CONCLUSIONS

Potentiation of twitch force could be a possible compensatory mechanism to maintain a constant force output during painful isometric contractions when SMU firing decreases. This finding therefore provides new information on the adaptation of motor function by muscle pain.

Fatigue of rat hindlimb motor units: Biochemical- physiological associations

Associations between fatigability and biochemical properties within motor unit (MU) types were explored in two hindlimb muscles of the adult rat. Type FF MUs in extensor digitorum longus and type S units in soleus were subjected either to a moderate (type FF) or severe (type S) 6-min, fatigue-inducing stimulation protocol. For both MU types, the range of values for their fatigability was considerably greater than the ranges in the activity levels of three enzymes in the units' constituent muscle fibers (MFs). These enzymes represented major energy-yielding pathways: adenylokinase, for high-energy phosphate metabolism; lactate dehydrogenase, for anaerobic glycolysis; and malate dehydrogenase, for oxidative metabolism. There were also relatively weak associations between the fatigue indices of the MUs and the activity levels of the three enzymes. Thus, this work supports previous conclusions that the force decline exhibited by MUs during electrically evoked contractions depends on both MF biochemistry and other intracellular mechanisms. Electromyographic measurements suggested that these other mechanisms are distal to the intramuscular branches of the axon in type FF units, and distal to excitation-contraction coupling in type S units.

Effect of experimental muscle pain on motor unit firing rate and conduction velocity

The aim of this human study was to investigate the relationship between experimentally induced muscle pain intensity (i.e., amount of nociceptive activity) and motor unit (MU) firing decrease and MU conduction velocity (CV). In 12 healthy subjects, nociceptive afferents were stimulated in the right tibialis anterior muscle by three intramuscular injections of hypertonic saline (0.2, 0.5, and 0.9 ml) separated by 140 s. The subjects performed six isometric contractions (20 s long) at 10% of the maximal voluntary contraction during the experimental muscle pain. The same set of six contractions was performed without any infusion before the painful condition on the right leg. The procedure was repeated for the left leg with infusion of isotonic (nonpainful) saline. Intramuscular and surface electromyographic (EMG) signals were collected to assess MU firing rate and CV. The firing rate of the active MUs [range: 7.4-14.8 pulses/s (pps)] did not change significantly in the three control conditions (without infusion for the right and left leg and with infusion of isotonic saline in the left leg). There was, on the contrary, a significant decrease (on average, mean +/- SE, 1.03 +/- 0.21 pps) of the firing rates during the painful condition. Moreover, MU firing rates were inversely significantly correlated with the subjective scores of pain intensity. Single MU CV was 3.88 +/- 0.03 m/s (mean +/- SE, over all the MUs) with no statistical difference among any condition, i.e., the injection of hypertonic saline did not alter the muscle fiber membrane properties of the observed MUs. Progressively increased muscle pain intensity causes a gradual decrease of MU firing rates. This decrease is not associated with a change in MU membrane properties, indirectly assessed by CV. This study demonstrates a central inhibitory motor control mechanism with an efficacy correlated to the nociceptive activity.

Properties of human motor units after prolonged activity at a constant firing rate

The primary purpose of this study was to examine if there are changes in the intrinsic properties of spinal motoneurons after prolonged submaximal contractions. To do this, we assessed whether or not the synaptic drive to motoneurons needs to increase in order to maintain a constant firing rate of a motor unit. Recruitment of new units and an increase in total electromyographic (EMG) activity of the muscle of interest were taken as estimates of an increase in synaptic drive. Subjects were asked to maintain a constant firing rate of a clearly identifiable (targeted) motor unit from the first dorsal interosseous muscle for approximately 10 min, while surface EMG and force were recorded simultaneously. For the 60 units studied, the duration of the constant-firing-rate period ranged from 73 to 1,140 s (448 +/- 227 s; mean +/- SD). There was a significant increase ( t-test, p<0.001) in the magnitude of mean surface EMG, and DC force while the targeted motoneuron maintained a constant rate suggesting an increase in the net excitatory input to the motoneuron pool. Changes occurring simultaneously in other parameters, namely, variability in interspike interval, magnitude of force fluctuations, the duration of motor unit action potentials, and the median power frequency of surface EMG were also computed. The firing rates of 16 concurrently firing motoneurons, not controlled by the subject, remained constant. The key finding of this study is that after prolonged activity, a motoneuron requires a stronger excitatory input to maintain its firing rate. Additional results are indicative of significant changes in the characteristics of the synaptic inputs, changes at the neuromuscular junction (both pre- and postsynaptic regions) and the sarcolemma.

Activation varies among the knee extensor muscles during a submaximal fatiguing contraction in the seated and supine postures

Ten young men sustained an isometric contraction of the knee extensor muscles at 20% of the maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) torque on three separate occasions in a seated posture. Subjects performed an isometric knee extension contraction on a fourth occasion in a supine posture. The time to task failure for the seated posture was similar across sessions (291 +/- 84 s; P > 0.05), and the MVC torque was similarly reduced across sessions after the fatiguing contraction (42 +/- 12%). The rate of increase in electromyograph (EMG) activity (%MVC) and torque fluctuations during the fatiguing contractions were similar across sessions. However, the rate of increase in EMG differed among the knee extensor muscles: the rectus femoris began at a greater amplitude (31.5 +/- 11.0%) compared with the vastus lateralis and vastus medialis muscles (18.8 +/- 5.3%), but it ended at a similar value (45.4 +/- 3.1%). The time to task failure and increase in EMG activity were similar for the seated and supine tasks; however, the reduction in MVC torque was greater for the seated posture. These findings indicate that the time to task failure for the knee extensor muscles that have a common tendon insertion did not alter over repeat sessions as had been observed for the elbow flexor muscles (Hunter SK and Enoka RM. J Appl Physiol 94: 108-118, 2003).

Human brain activation during sustained and intermittent submaximal fatigue muscle contractions: an FMRI study

During prolonged submaximal muscle contractions, electromyographic (EMG) signals typically increase as a result of increasing motor unit activities to compensate for fatigue-induced force loss in the muscle. It is thought that cortical signals driving the muscle to higher activation levels also increases, but this has never been experimentally demonstrated. The purpose of this study was to quantify brain activation during submaximal fatigue muscle contractions using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Twelve volunteers performed a sustained handgrip contraction for 225 s and 320 intermittent handgrip contractions ( approximately 960 s) at 30% maximal level while their brain was imaged. For the sustained contraction, EMG signals of the finger flexor muscles increased linearly while the target force was maintained. The fMRI-measured cortical activities in the contralateral sensorimotor cortex increased sharply during the first 150 s, then plateaued during the last 75 s. For the intermittent contractions, the EMG signals increased during the first 660 s and then began to decline, while the handgrip force also showed a sign of decrease despite maximal effort to maintain the force. The fMRI signal of the contralateral sensorimotor area showed a linear rise for most part of the task and plateaued at the end. For both the tasks, the fMRI signals in the ipsilateral sensorimotor cortex, prefrontal cortex, cingulate gyrus, supplementary motor area, and cerebellum exhibited steady increases. These results showed that the brain increased its output to reinforce the muscle for the continuation of the performance and possibly to process additional sensory information.

Factors affecting the stability of the spike-triggered averaged force in the human first dorsal interosseus muscle

The reproducibility of motor unit twitches obtained using spike-triggered averaging (STA) was examined in the human first dorsal interosseus. For each motor unit (30 total) a series of STA twitches was derived using a 30 s averaging window. Within each averaging window, eight independent measures characterizing motor unit discharge and whole muscle force properties were recorded. These included the mean and standard deviation (S.D.) of the interspike interval (ISI), the mean and S.D. of pre and post-trigger ISIs used in averaging, and mean and S.D. of whole muscle force. To determine the relative importance of the independent variables on twitch reproducibility, the variables were used in a multiple regression analysis performed on STA twitch peak force (PF), time to peak force (TTP) and time of half-force decay (HFD). It was found that PF was significantly correlated to the mean and S.D. of whole muscle force, and mean post-trigger ISI. TTP was significantly correlated to the S.D. of the post-trigger ISI and mean whole muscle force while HFD was related to the mean and S.D. of the pre-trigger ISI and the mean post-trigger ISI. It was concluded that by minimizing whole muscle force variability and the mean and S.D. of acceptable ISIs used in the STA process, the reproducibility of the STA twitch is improved.

Activation among the elbow flexor muscles differs when maintaining arm position during a fatiguing contraction

Twenty-four men (n = 11) and women (n = 13) supported an inertial load equivalent to 20% of the maximum voluntary contraction force with the elbow flexor muscles for as long as possible while maintaining a constant elbow angle at 90 degrees. Endurance time did not differ on the three occasions that the task was performed (320 +/- 149 s; P > 0.05), and there was no difference between women (360 +/- 168 s) and men (273 +/- 108 s; P = 0.11). The rate of increase in average electromyogram (EMG) for the elbow flexor muscles was similar across sessions (P > 0.05). However, average EMG during the fatiguing task increased for the long head of biceps brachii, brachioradialis, and brachialis (P < 0.05) but not for the short head of biceps brachii. Furthermore, the average EMG for the brachialis was greater at the start and end of the contraction compared with the other elbow flexor muscles. The rate of bursts in EMG activity increased during the fatiguing contraction and was greater in brachialis (1.0 +/- 0.2 bursts/min) compared with the other elbow flexor muscles (0.5 +/- 0.1 bursts/min). The changes in the standard deviation of acceleration, mean arterial pressure, and heart rate during the fatiguing contractions were similar across sessions. These findings indicate that the EMG activity, which reflects the net excitatory and inhibitory input received by the motoneurons in the spinal cord, was not adaptable over repeat sessions for the maintain-position task. Furthermore, these results contrast those from a previous study (Hunter SK and Enoka RM. J Appl Physiol 94: 108-118, 2003) when the goal of the isometric contraction was to maintain a constant force. These results, from a series of studies on the elbow flexor muscles, indicate that the type of load supported during the fatiguing contraction influences the extent to which endurance time can change with repeat performances of the task.

Amplitude and spectral characteristics of biceps Brachii sEMG depend upon speed of isometric force generation

In the present study the influence of speed of contraction on the interplay between recruitment and firing rate of motor units (MUs) was assessed. The surface electromyographic (sEMG) signal was recorded in nine healthy subjects from the right biceps brachii using a linear electrode array during ramp isometric contractions (from 0 to 100% of the maximal voluntary force, MVC) at 5, 10, and 20% MVC s(-1) (ramp phase), followed by 10 s of sustained MVC (hold phase). The median frequency (MDF), Root Mean Square (RMS) and conduction velocity (CV) of sEMG, were computed on adjacent epochs covering a force range of 5% MVC each. Full motor unit recruitment (FMUR) point was assessed as the force level at which MDF reached its maximum value; the MDF decay during the hold phase was taken as an index of localized muscle fatigue. At 5% MVC s(-1), FMUR was reached at 52.3% MVC. At 10%MVC s(-1) FMUR was achieved at 58% MVC; while at 20% MVC s(-1) FMUR point was located at 77% MVC, being statistically different from 5 and 10% MVCs(-1) ramps (p<0.05). The MDF decay was steeper at higher speed. CV modifications mirrored those reported for MDF. The RMS increased in a curvilinear fashion and the maximum value was always attained during the hold phase. Our findings suggest that MU recruitment strategies are significantly related to the speed of contraction even in a single muscle.

Changes in muscle activation can prolong the endurance time of a submaximal isometric contraction in humans

Fourteen young subjects (7 men and 7 women) performed a fatiguing isometric contraction with the elbow flexor muscles at 20% of maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) force on three occasions. Endurance time for session 3 [1,718 +/- 1,189 (SD) s] was longer than for session 1 (1,225 +/- 683 s) and session 2 (1,410 +/- 977 s). Five men and four women increased endurance time between session 1 and 3 by 60 +/- 28% (responders), whereas two men and three women did not (-3 +/- 11%; nonresponders). The MVC force was similar for the responders and nonresponders, both before and after the fatiguing contraction. Fatiguing contractions were characterized by an increase in the electromyogram (EMG) amplitude and number of bursts during the fatiguing contractions. The responders achieved a similar level of EMG at exhaustion but a reduced rate of increase in the EMG across sessions. The rate of increase in EMG across sessions declined for the nonresponders, but it remained greater than that of the responders. The increase in burst rate during the contractions declined across sessions with a negative relation between burst rate and endurance time (r = -0.42). Normalized force fluctuations increased during the fatiguing contractions, and there was a positive relation (r = 0.60) between the force fluctuations and burst rate. Changes in mean arterial pressure and heart rate during the fatiguing contraction were similar for the responders and nonresponders across the three sessions. The results indicate that those subjects who increased the endurance time of a submaximal contraction across three sessions did so by altering the level and pattern of muscle activation.

Task differences with the same load torque alter the endurance time of submaximal fatiguing contractions in humans

Endurance time, muscle activation, and mean arterial pressure were measured during two types of submaximal fatiguing contractions that required each subject to exert the same net muscle torque in the two tasks. Sixteen men and women performed isometric contractions at 15% of the maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) force with the elbow flexor muscles, either by maintaining a constant force while pushing against a force transducer (force task) or by supporting an equivalent inertial load while maintaining a constant elbow angle (position task). The endurance time for the force task (1402 +/- 728 s) was twice as long as that for the position task (702 +/- 582 s, P < 0.05), despite a similar reduction in the load torque at exhaustion for each contraction. The rate of increase in average electromyographic activity (EMG, % peak MVC value) for the elbow flexor muscles was similar for the two tasks. However, the average EMG was greater at exhaustion for the force task (22.4 +/- 1.2%) compared with the position task (14.9 +/- 1.0%, P < 0.05). In contrast, the rates of increase in the mean arterial pressure, the rating of perceived exertion, anterior deltoid EMG, and fluctuations in motor output (force or acceleration) were greater for the position task compared with the force task (P < 0.05). Furthermore, the rate of bursts in EMG activity, which corresponded to the transient recruitment of motor units, was greater for the brachialis muscle during the position task. These results indicate that the briefer endurance time for the position task was associated with greater levels of excitatory and inhibitory input to the motor neurons compared with the force task.

Reflex regulation during sustained and intermittent submaximal contractions in humans

To investigate whether the intensity and duration of a sustained contraction influences reflex regulation, we compared sustained fatiguing contractions at 25 % and 50 % of maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) force in the human abductor pollicis brevis (APB) muscle. Because the activation of motoneurones during fatigue may be reflexively controlled by the metabolic status of the muscle, we also compared reflex activities during sustained and intermittent (6 s contraction, 4 s rest) contractions at 25 % MVC for an identical duration. The short-latency Hoffmann(H) reflex and the long-latency reflex (LLR) were recorded during voluntary contractions, before, during and after the fatigue tests, with each response normalised to the compound muscle action potential (M-wave). The results showed that fatigue during sustained contractions was inversely related to the intensity, and hence the duration, of the effort. The MVC force and associated surface electromyogram (EMG) declined by 26.2 % and 35.2 %, respectively, after the sustained contraction at 50 % MVC, and by 34.2 % and 44.2 % after the sustained contraction at 25 % MVC. Although the average EMG increased progressively with time during the two sustained fatiguing contractions, the amplitudes of the H and LLR reflexes decreased significantly. Combined with previous data (Duchateau & Hainaut, 1993), the results show that the effect on the H reflex is independent of the intensity of the sustained contraction, whereas the decline in the LLR is closely related to the duration of the contraction. Because there were no changes in the intermittent test at 25 % MVC, the results indicate that the net excitatory spinal and supraspinal reflex-mediated input to the motoneurone pool is reduced. This decline in excitation to the motoneurones, however, can be temporarily compensated by an enhancement of the central drive.