Association Between Redlining and Spatial Access to Pharmacies

Healthcare Access in the Aftermath: A Longitudinal Analysis of Disaster Impact on US Communities

Research on climate-related disasters and healthcare infrastructure has largely focused on short-term, localized impacts. This study examined the long-term association between climate-related disasters and healthcare facilities across 3108 contiguous United States counties from 2000 to 2014. Utilizing databases like the National Establishment Time Series and the Spatial Hazards and Events Losses Database, we classified county-level infrastructure changes ("never had", "lost", "gained", and "always had") and disaster severity (minor, moderate, severe), respectively. Autoregressive linear models were used to estimate the total number of moderate and severe disasters (2000-2013) associated with the change in the number of healthcare establishments in 2014, after adjusting for healthcare establishments, total population, and poverty in 2000. Results demonstrate that an increase in one moderate disaster was significantly associated with increased hospital infrastructure (Count, 0.14; 95% CI, 0.03-0.25), while severe disasters were significantly associated with a decrease (Count, -0.31; 95% CI, -0.47--0.14). Similar but stronger associations were observed for ambulatory care (Moderate: Count, 2.52; 95% CI 0.91-4.12 and Severe: Count, -5.99; 95% CI, -8.53--3.64, respectively). No significant associations were found among pharmacies. These findings highlight the varying impacts of climate-related disasters on healthcare accessibility. Future initiatives should prioritize strengthening existing infrastructure and enhance disaster recovery strategies.

Vaccination payments in states with provider status for pharmacists: A claims analysis

BACKGROUND

Federal-level legislation to recognize pharmacists as providers and thus allow insurance reimbursement for health services claims, not just prescription drug claims (known as provider status), has been advocated for by the profession but is yet to be passed into federal law. Several state governments have enacted this recognition for commercial insurance and/or Medicaid plans. However, the impact of these laws on reimbursement and access to health services has yet to be explored empirically.

OBJECTIVE

Compare commercial reimbursements for influenza and herpes zoster vaccinations for adults in provider status vs. non-provider status states to determine whether these laws have had the intended effect of increasing reimbursement to pharmacists for provided services.

METHODS

We used pharmaceutical and outpatient services claims from a national claims database, Marketscan, to examine payments made to pharmacies for all codes billed during vaccination visits. We then used a multivariable logistic regression model to compare the net revenue of vaccination visits in commercial provider status states vs. non-commercial provider-status states.

RESULTS

Our dataset contained 2.3 million vaccination visits for influenza and herpes zoster during 2021-2022. We found that the odds of a vaccination visit having positive net revenue were slightly higher in provider status states (shingles odds ratio [OR]: 1.03, P < 0.001; influenza OR 1.01:, P < 0.001). These findings are limited by the stark lack of health services claims by pharmacies in our dataset; only 0.4% of visits included any outpatient services claims, even among provider status states.

CONCLUSION

This indicates that pharmacists are not submitting claims for reimbursement to payors for health services they are providing. This absence could be due to several reasons and limits the ability to generate evidence about the effect of these laws on health and economic outcomes for patients and health systems. Further research is needed to identify and address barriers to implementation of provider status laws.

Structural factors and their influence on the use of novel antidiabetic agents: Making the case for increased awareness and access to clinical pharmacy services

Type 2 diabetes (T2D) affects over 38 million Americans, leading to significant health complications and substantial healthcare costs. Novel antidiabetic medications, such as SGLT2 inhibitors and GLP-1 receptor agonists, have shown promise in improving glycemic control and reducing cardiovascular risks. However, their underuse, particularly among minority populations, remains a concern. This review examines the impact of structural factors, including socioeconomic determinants and historical practices like redlining, on the utilization of new antidiabetic agents. Disparities in T2D outcomes are driven by inadequate access to care and neighborhood characteristics. Addressing these issues requires comprehensive strategies, including the integration of pharmacist support to enhance medication adherence and overall T2D management. Understanding the influence of structural racism on healthcare disparities is crucial for improving access and outcomes for all patients.

The impact of historical redlining on neurosurgeon distribution and reimbursement in modern neighborhoods

Background

This study examines the lasting impact of historical redlining on contemporary neurosurgical care access, highlighting the need for equitable healthcare in historically marginalized communities.

Objective

To investigate how redlining affects neurosurgeon distribution and reimbursement in U.S. neighborhoods, analyzing implications for healthcare access.

Methods

An observational study was conducted using data from the Center for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) National File, Home Owner's Loan Corporation (HOLC) neighborhood grades, and demographic data to evaluate neurosurgical representation across 91 U.S. cities, categorized by HOLC Grades (A, B, C, D) and gentrification status.

Results

Of the 257 neighborhoods, Grade A, B, C, and D neighborhoods comprised 5.40%, 18.80%, 45.8%, and 30.0% of the sample, respectively. Grade A, B, and C neighborhoods had more White and Asian residents and less Black residents compared to Grade D neighborhoods (p < 0.001). HOLC Grade A (OR = 4.37, 95%CI: 2.08, 9.16, p < 0.001), B (OR = 1.99, 95%CI: 1.18, 3.38, p = 0.011), and C (OR = 2.37, 95%CI: 1.57, 3.59, p < 0.001) neighborhoods were associated with a higher representation of neurosurgeons compared to Grade D neighborhoods. Reimbursement disparities were also apparent: neurosurgeons practicing in HOLC Grade D neighborhoods received significantly lower reimbursements than those in Grade A neighborhoods ($109,163.77 vs. $142,999.88, p < 0.001), Grade B neighborhoods ($109,163.77 vs. $131,459.02, p < 0.001), and Grade C neighborhoods ($109,163.77 vs. $129,070.733, p < 0.001).

Conclusion

Historical redlining continues to shape access to highly specialized healthcare such as neurosurgery. Efforts to address these disparities must consider historical context and strive to achieve more equitable access to specialized care.

Ready for Discharge, but Are They Ready to Go Home? Examining Neighborhood-Level Disadvantage as a Marker of the Social Exposome and the Swallowing Care Process in a Retrospective Cohort of Inpatients With Dementia

PURPOSE

Socioeconomically disadvantaged areas are more resource poor, impacting adherence to swallowing care recommendations. Neighborhood-level disadvantage metrics, such as the Area Deprivation Index (ADI), allow for examination of social determinants of health (SDOH) in a precise region. We examined ADI in a cohort of persons living with dementia (PLWD) to determine representation of those residing in areas of socioeconomic disadvantage (high ADI), distribution of swallowing care provided, and frequency of SDOH-related counseling or resource linking prior to discharge.

METHOD

A retrospective chart abstraction was performed for all inpatients with a diagnosis of dementia (N = 204) seen by the Swallow Service at a large academic hospital in 2014. State ADI Deciles 1 (least) to 10 (most socioeconomic disadvantage) and decile groups (1-3, 4-7, and 8-10) were compared with the surrounding county. Frequency of videofluoroscopic swallowing evaluations (VFSEs) based on ADI deciles was recorded. To determine whether SDOH-related counseling or resource linking occurred for those in high ADI (8-10) neighborhoods, speech-language pathology notes, and discharge summaries were reviewed. Descriptive statistics, independent samples t tests, and one-way analysis of variance were calculated.

RESULTS

ADI was significantly higher in this cohort (M = 3.84, SD = 2.58) than in the surrounding county (M = 2.79, SD = 1.88, p = .000). There was no significant difference in utilization of swallowing services across decile groups (p = .88). Although the majority (85%) in high ADI areas was recommended diet modifications or alternative nutrition likely requiring extra resources, there was no documentation indicating that additional SDOH resource linking or counseling was provided.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings raise important questions about the role and responsibility of speech-language pathologists in tailoring swallowing services to challenges posed by the lived environment, particularly in socioeconomically disadvantaged areas. This underscores the need for further research to understand and address gaps in postdischarge support for PLWD in high-ADI regions and advocate for more equitable provision of swallowing care.

Locations and characteristics of pharmacy deserts in the United States: a geospatial study

Pharmacies are important health care access points, but no national map currently exists of where pharmacy deserts are located. This cross-sectional study used pharmacy address data and Census Bureau surveys to define pharmacy deserts at the census tract level in all 50 US states and the District of Columbia. We also compared sociodemographic characteristics of pharmacy desert vs non-pharmacy desert communities. Nationally, 15.8 million (4.7%) of all people in the United States live in pharmacy deserts, spanning urban and rural settings in all 50 states. On average, communities that are pharmacy deserts have a higher proportion of people who have a high school education or less, have no health insurance, have low self-reported English ability, have an ambulatory disability, and identify as a racial or ethnic minority. While, on average, pharmacies are the most accessible health care setting in the United States, many people still do not have access to them. Further, the people living in pharmacy deserts are often marginalized groups who have historically faced structural barriers to health care. This study demonstrates a need to improve access to pharmacies and pharmacy services to advance health equity.

The interaction between geriatric and neighborhood vulnerability: Delineating prehospital risk among older adult emergency general surgery patients

BACKGROUND

When presenting for emergency general surgery (EGS) care, older adults frequently experience increased risk of adverse outcomes owing to factors related to age ("geriatric vulnerability") and the social determinants of health unique to the places in which they live ("neighborhood vulnerability"). Little is known about how such factors collectively influence adverse outcomes. We sought to explore how the interaction between geriatric and neighborhood vulnerability influences EGS outcomes among older adults.

METHODS

Older adults, 65 years or older, hospitalized with an AAST-defined EGS condition were identified in the 2016 to 2019, 2021 Florida State Inpatient Database. Latent variable models combined the influence of patient age, multimorbidity, and Hospital Frailty Risk Score into a single metric of "geriatric vulnerability." Variations in geriatric vulnerability were then compared across differences in "neighborhood vulnerability" as measured by variations in Area Deprivation Index, Social Vulnerability Index, and their corresponding subthemes (e.g., access to transportation).

RESULTS

A total of 448,968 older adults were included. For patients living in the least vulnerable neighborhoods, increasing geriatric vulnerability resulted in up to six times greater risk of death (30-day risk-adjusted hazards ratio [HR], 6.32; 95% confidence interval [CI], 4.49-8.89). The effect was more than doubled among patients living in the most vulnerable neighborhoods, where increasing geriatric vulnerability resulted in up to 15 times greater risk of death (30-day risk-adjusted HR, 15.12; 95% CI, 12.57-18.19). When restricted to racial/ethnic minority patients, the multiplicative effect was four-times as high, resulting in corresponding 30-day HRs for mortality of 11.53 (95% CI, 4.51-29.44) versus 40.67 (95% CI, 22.73-72.78). Similar patterns were seen for death within 365 days.

CONCLUSION

Both geriatric and neighborhood vulnerability have been shown to affect prehospital risk among older patients. The results of this study build on that work, presenting the first in-depth look at the powerful multiplicative interaction between these two factors. The results show that where a patient resides can fundamentally alter expected outcomes for EGS care such that otherwise less vulnerable patients become functionally equivalent to those who are, at baseline, more aged, more frail, and more sick.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Prognostic and Epidemiological; Level III.

Eliminating Health Disparities in Atrial Fibrillation, Heart Failure, and Dyslipidemia: A Path Toward Achieving Pharmacoequity

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Pharmacoequity refers to the goal of ensuring that all patients have access to high-quality medications, regardless of their race, ethnicity, gender, or other characteristics. The goal of this article is to review current evidence on disparities in access to cardiovascular drug therapies across sociodemographic subgroups, with a focus on heart failure, atrial fibrillation, and dyslipidemia.

RECENT FINDINGS

Considerable and consistent disparities to life-prolonging heart failure, atrial fibrillation, and dyslipidemia medications exist in clinical trial representation, access to specialist care, prescription of guideline-based therapy, drug affordability, and pharmacy accessibility across racial, ethnic, gender, and other sociodemographic subgroups. Researchers, health systems, and policy makers can take steps to improve pharmacoequity by diversifying clinical trial enrollment, increasing access to inpatient and outpatient cardiology care, nudging clinicians to increase prescription of guideline-directed medical therapy, and pursuing system-level reforms to improve drug access and affordability.