Pseudocontact shifts as constraints for energy minimization and molecular dynamics calculations on solution structures of paramagnetic metalloproteins

Solution Structure of a Lanthanide-binding DNA Aptamer Determined Using High Quality pseudocontact shift restraints

In this contribution we report the high-resolution NMR structure of a recently identified lanthanide-binding aptamer (LnA). We demonstrate that the rigid lanthanide binding by LnA allows for the measurement of anisotropic paramagnetic NMR restraints which to date remain largely inaccessible for nucleic acids. One type of such restraints - pseudocontact shifts (PCS) induced by four different paramagnetic lanthanides - was extensively used throughout the current structure determination study and the measured PCS turned out to be exceptionally well reproduced by the final aptamer structure. This finding opens the perspective for a broader application of paramagnetic effects in NMR studies of nucleic acids through the transplantation of the binding site found in LnA into other DNA/RNA systems.

Exploring the use of cobalt(II) dipolar shifts in refining the structure of a zinc finger peptide

The uses of dipolar shifts due to cobalt(II) substituted for zinc(II) in a consensus zinc finger peptide for refining the NMR-determined structure were examined. Substantial differences between the calculated and observed chemical shift differences between the cobalt(II) and zinc(II) complexes were observed when these dipolar shifts were not used as constraints in the structure refinement. However, inclusion of these constraints resulted in excellent agreement with minor adjustments in the structure and a slight improvement in the precision of the structure determination. Other calculations revealed that the dipolar shifts were not adequate to determine the overall folded structure by themselves, but were useful in increasing the accuracy and precision of a structure determined based only on nuclear Overhauser effects constraints involving only backbone atoms.

Pseudocontact Shifts in Biomolecular NMR Spectroscopy

Paramagnetic centers in biomolecules, such as specific metal ions that are bound to a protein, affect the nuclei in their surrounding in various ways. One of these effects is the pseudocontact shift (PCS), which leads to strong chemical shift perturbations of nuclear spins, with a remarkably long range of 50 Å and beyond. The PCS in solution NMR is an effect originating from the anisotropic part of the dipole-dipole interaction between the magnetic momentum of unpaired electrons and nuclear spins. The PCS contains spatial information that can be exploited in multiple ways to characterize structure, function, and dynamics of biomacromolecules. It can be used to refine structures, magnify effects of dynamics, help resonance assignments, allows for an intermolecular positioning system, and gives structural information in sensitivity-limited situations where all other methods fail. Here, we review applications of the PCS in biomolecular solution NMR spectroscopy, starting from early works on natural metalloproteins, following the development of non-natural tags to chelate and attach lanthanoid ions to any biomolecular target to advanced applications on large biomolecular complexes and inside living cells. We thus hope to not only highlight past applications but also shed light on the tremendous potential the PCS has in structural biology.

Advances in NMR Spectroscopy of Weakly Aligned Biomolecular Systems

The measurement and application of residual dipolar couplings (RDCs) in solution NMR studies of biological macromolecules has become well established over the past quarter of a century. Numerous methods for generating the requisite anisotropic orientational molecular distribution have been demonstrated, each with its specific strengths and weaknesses. In parallel, an enormous number of pulse schemes have been introduced to measure the many different types of RDCs, ranging from the most widely measured backbone amide ¹⁵N-¹H RDCs, to ¹H-¹H RDCs and couplings between low-γ nuclei. Applications of RDCs range from structure validation and refinement to the determination of relative domain orientations, the measurement of backbone and domain motions, and de novo structure determination. Nevertheless, it appears that the power of the RDC methodology remains underutilized. This review aims to highlight the practical aspects of sample preparation and RDC measurement while describing some of the most straightforward applications that take advantage of the exceptionally precise information contained in such data. Some emphasis will be placed on more recent developments that enable the accurate measurement of RDCs in larger systems, which is key to the ongoing shift in focus of biological NMR spectroscopy from structure determination toward gaining improved understanding of how molecular flexibility drives protein function.

Pseudocontact shifts from mobile spin labels

This paper presents a detailed analysis of the pseudocontact shift (PCS) field induced by a mobile spin label that is viewed as a probability density distribution with an associated effective magnetic susceptibility anisotropy. It is demonstrated that non-spherically symmetric density can lead to significant deviations from the commonly used point dipole approximation for the PCS. Analytical and numerical solutions are presented for the general partial differential equation that describes the non-point case. It is also demonstrated that it is possible, with some reasonable approximations, to reconstruct paramagnetic centre probability distributions from the experimental PCS data.

Model-free extraction of spin label position distributions from pseudocontact shift data

Not a point, but a cloud: advanced PCS data analysis using 3D probability density reconstruction provides more information.

A significant problem with paramagnetic tags attached to proteins and nucleic acids is their conformational mobility. Each tag is statistically distributed within a volume between 5 and 10 Angstroms across; structural biology conclusions from NMR and EPR work are necessarily diluted by this uncertainty. The problem is solved in electron spin resonance, but remains open in the other major branch of paramagnetic resonance – pseudocontact shift (PCS) NMR spectroscopy, where structural biologists have so far been reluctantly using the point paramagnetic centre approximation. Here we describe a new method for extracting probability densities of lanthanide tags from PCS data. The method relies on Tikhonov-regularised 3D reconstruction and opens a new window into biomolecular structure and dynamics because it explores a very different range of conditions from those accessible to double electron resonance work on paramagnetic tags: a room-temperature solution rather than a glass at cryogenic temperatures. The method is illustrated using four different Tm³⁺ DOTA-M8 tagged mutants of human carbonic anhydrase II; the results are in good agreement with rotamer library and DEER data. The wealth of high-quality pseudocontact shift data accumulated by the biological magnetic resonance community over the last 30 years, and so far only processed using point models, could now become a major source of useful information on conformational distributions of paramagnetic tags in biomolecules.

A protocol for the refinement of NMR structures using simultaneously pseudocontact shift restraints from multiple lanthanide ions

The binding of paramagnetic metal ions to proteins produces a number of different effects on the NMR spectra of the system. In particular, when the magnetic susceptibility of the metal ion is anisotropic, pseudocontact shifts (PCSs) arise and can be easily measured. They constitute very useful restraints for the solution structure determination of metal-binding proteins. In this context, there has been great interest in the use of lanthanide(III) ions to induce PCSs in diamagnetic proteins, e.g. through the replacement native calcium(II) ions. By preparing multiple samples in each of which a different ion of the lanthanide series is introduced, it is possible to obtain multiple independent PCS datasets that can be used synergistically to generate protein structure ensembles (typically called bundles). For typical NMR-based determination of protein structure, it is necessary to perform an energetic refinement of such initial bundles to obtain final structures whose geometric quality is suitable for deposition in the PDB. This can be conveniently done by using restrained molecular dynamics simulations (rMD) in explicit solvent. However, there are no available protocols for rMD using multiple PCS datasets as part of the restraints. In this work, we extended the PCS module of the AMBER MD package to handle multiple datasets and tuned a previously developed protocol for NMR structure refinement to achieve consistent convergence with PCS restraints. Test calculations with real experimental data show that this new implementation delivers the expected improvement of protein geometry, resulting in final structures that are of suitable quality for deposition. Furthermore, we observe that also initial structures generated only with traditional restraints can be successfully refined using traditional and PCS restraints simultaneously.

How to tackle protein structural data from solution and solid state: An integrated approach

Long-range NMR restraints, such as diamagnetic residual dipolar couplings and paramagnetic data, can be used to determine 3D structures of macromolecules. They are also used to monitor, and potentially to improve, the accuracy of a macromolecular structure in solution by validating or "correcting" a crystal model. Since crystal structures suffer from crystal packing forces they may not be accurate models for the macromolecular structures in solution. However, the presence of real differences should be tested for by simultaneous refinement of the structure using both crystal and solution NMR data. To achieve this, the program REFMAC5 from CCP4 was modified to allow the simultaneous use of X-ray crystallographic and paramagnetic NMR data and/or diamagnetic residual dipolar couplings. Inconsistencies between crystal structures and solution NMR data, if any, may be due either to structural rearrangements occurring on passing from the solution to solid state, or to a greater degree of conformational heterogeneity in solution with respect to the crystal. In the case of multidomain proteins, paramagnetic restraints can provide the correct mutual orientations and positions of domains in solution, as well as information on the conformational variability experienced by the macromolecule.

Information content of long-range NMR data for the characterization of conformational heterogeneity

Long-range NMR data, namely residual dipolar couplings (RDCs) from external alignment and paramagnetic data, are becoming increasingly popular for the characterization of conformational heterogeneity of multidomain biomacromolecules and protein complexes. The question addressed here is how much information is contained in these averaged data. We have analyzed and compared the information content of conformationally averaged RDCs caused by steric alignment and of both RDCs and pseudocontact shifts caused by paramagnetic alignment, and found that, despite the substantial differences, they contain a similar amount of information. Furthermore, using several synthetic tests we find that both sets of data are equally good towards recovering the major state(s) in conformational distributions.

PARAssign--paramagnetic NMR assignments of protein nuclei on the basis of pseudocontact shifts

The use of paramagnetic NMR data for the refinement of structures of proteins and protein complexes is widespread. However, the power of paramagnetism for protein assignment has not yet been fully exploited. PARAssign is software that uses pseudocontact shift data derived from several paramagnetic centers attached to the protein to obtain amide and methyl assignments. The ability of PARAssign to perform assignment when the positions of the paramagnetic centers are known and unknown is demonstrated. PARAssign has been tested using synthetic data for methyl assignment of a 47 kDa protein, and using both synthetic and experimental data for amide assignment of a 14 kDa protein. The complex fitting space involved in such an assignment procedure necessitates that good starting conditions are found, both regarding placement and strength of paramagnetic centers. These starting conditions are obtained through automated tensor placement and user-defined tensor parameters. The results presented herein demonstrate that PARAssign is able to successfully perform resonance assignment in large systems with a high degree of reliability. This software provides a method for obtaining the assignments of large systems, which may previously have been unassignable, by using 2D NMR spectral data and a known protein structure.

Parameterization of solvent-protein interaction and its use on NMR protein structure determination

NMR structure determination is frequently hindered by an insufficient amount of distance information for determining the correct fold of the protein in its early stages. In response we introduce a simple and general structure-based metric that can be used to incorporate NMR-based restraints on protein surface accessibility. This metric is inversely proportional to the sum of the inverse square distances to neighboring heavy atoms. We demonstrate the use of this restraint using a dataset from the water to protein magnetization transfer experiment on the protein Bax and the solvent paramagnetic relaxation enhancement experiment on the protein ubiquitin and Qua1 homodimer. The calculated solvent accessibility values using the new empirical function are well correlated with the experimental data. By incorporating an associated energy term into Xplor-NIH, we show that structure calculation with a limited number of additional experimental restraints, improves both the precision and accuracy of the resulting structures. This new empirical energy term will have general applicability to other types of solvent accessibility data.

Accurate structure and dynamics of the metal-site of paramagnetic metalloproteins from NMR parameters using natural bond orbitals

A natural bond orbital (NBO) analysis of unpaired electron spin density in metalloproteins is presented, which allows a fast and robust calculation of paramagnetic NMR parameters. Approximately 90% of the unpaired electron spin density occupies metal–ligand NBOs, allowing the majority of the density to be modeled by only a few NBOs that reflect the chemical bonding environment. We show that the paramagnetic relaxation rate of protons can be calculated accurately using only the metal–ligand NBOs and that these rates are in good agreement with corresponding rates measured experimentally. This holds, in particular, for protons of ligand residues where the point-dipole approximation breaks down. To describe the paramagnetic relaxation of heavy nuclei, also the electron spin density in the local orbitals must be taken into account. Geometric distance restraints for ¹⁵N can be derived from the paramagnetic relaxation enhancement and the Fermi contact shift when local NBOs are included in the analysis. Thus, the NBO approach allows us to include experimental paramagnetic NMR parameters of ¹⁵N nuclei as restraints in a structure optimization protocol. We performed a molecular dynamics simulation and structure determination of oxidized rubredoxin using the experimentally obtained paramagnetic NMR parameters of ¹⁵N. The corresponding structures obtained are in good agreement with the crystal structure of rubredoxin. Thus, the NBO approach allows an accurate description of the geometric structure and the dynamics of metalloproteins, when NMR parameters are available of nuclei in the immediate vicinity of the metal-site.

Protein structure determination from pseudocontact shifts using ROSETTA

Paramagnetic metal ions generate pseudocontact shifts (PCSs) in nuclear magnetic resonance spectra that are manifested as easily measurable changes in chemical shifts. Metals can be incorporated into proteins through metal binding tags, and PCS data constitute powerful long-range restraints on the positions of nuclear spins relative to the coordinate system of the magnetic susceptibility anisotropy tensor (Δχ-tensor) of the metal ion. We show that three-dimensional structures of proteins can reliably be determined using PCS data from a single metal binding site combined with backbone chemical shifts. The program PCS-ROSETTA automatically determines the Δχ-tensor and metal position from the PCS data during the structure calculations, without any prior knowledge of the protein structure. The program can determine structures accurately for proteins of up to 150 residues, offering a powerful new approach to protein structure determination that relies exclusively on readily measurable backbone chemical shifts and easily discriminates between correctly and incorrectly folded conformations.

A Grid-enabled web portal for NMR structure refinement with AMBER

MOTIVATION

The typical workflow for NMR structure determination involves collecting thousands of conformational restraints, calculating a bundle of 20-40 conformers in agreement with them and refining the energetics of these conformers. The structure calculation step employs simulated annealing based on molecular dynamics (MD) simulations with very simplified force fields. The value of refining the calculated conformers using restrained MD (rMD) simulations with state-of-art force fields is documented. This refinement however presents various subtleties, from the proper formatting of conformational restraints to the definition of suitable protocols.

RESULTS

We describe a web interface to set up and run calculations with the AMBER package, which we called AMPS-NMR (AMBER-based Portal Server for NMR structures). The interface allows the refinement of NMR structures through rMD. Some predefined protocols are provided for this purpose, which can be personalized; it is also possible to create an entirely new protocol. AMPS-NMR can handle various restraint types. Standard rMD refinement in explicit water of the structures of three different proteins are shown as examples. AMPS-NMR additionally includes a workspace for the user to store different calculations. As an ancillary service, a web interface to AnteChamber is available, enabling the calculation of force field parameters for organic molecules such as ligands in protein-ligand adducts.

AVAILABILITY AND IMPLEMENTATION

AMPS-NMR is embedded within the NMR services of the WeNMR project and is available at http://py-enmr.cerm.unifi.it/access/index/amps-nmr; its use requires registration with a digital certificate.

CONTACT

ivanobertini@cerm.unifi.it

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.

Structure of the 1,N(2)-etheno-2'-deoxyguanosine lesion in the 3'-G(epsilon dG)T-5' sequence opposite a one-base deletion

The structure of the 1,N(2)-ethenodeoxyguanosine lesion (1,N(2)-epsilondG) has been characterized in 5'-d(CGCATXGAATCC)-3'.5'-d(GGATTCATGCG)-3' (X = 1,N(2)-epsilondG), in which there is no dC opposite the lesion. This duplex (named the 1-BD duplex) models the product of translesion bypass of 1,N(2)-epsilondG by Sulfolobus solfataricus P2 DNA polymerase IV (Dpo4) [Zang, H., Goodenough, A. K., Choi, J. Y., Irimia, A., Loukachevitch, L. V., Kozekov, I. D., Angel, K. C., Rizzo, C. J., Egli, M., and Guengerich, F. P. (2005) J. Biol. Chem. 280, 29750-29764], leading to a one-base deletion. The T(m) of this duplex is 6 degrees C higher than that of the duplex in which dC is present opposite the 1,N(2)-epsilondG lesion and 8 degrees C higher than that of the unmodified 1-BD duplex. Analysis of NOEs between the 1,N(2)-epsilondG imidazole and deoxyribose H1' protons and between the 1,N(2)-epsilondG etheno H6 and H7 protons and DNA protons establishes that 1,N(2)-epsilondG adopts the anti conformation about the glycosyl bond and that the etheno moiety is accommodated within the helix. The resonances of the 1,N(2)-epsilondG H6 and H7 etheno protons shift upfield relative to the monomer 1,N(2)-epsilondG, attributed to ring current shielding, consistent with their intrahelical location. NMR data reveal that Watson-Crick base pairing is maintained at both the 5' and 3' neighbor base pairs. The structure of the 1-BD duplex has been refined using molecular dynamics calculations restrained by NMR-derived distance and dihedral angle restraints. The increased stability of the 1,N(2)-epsilondG lesion in the absence of the complementary dC correlates with the one-base deletion extension product observed during the bypass of the 1,N(2)-epsilondG lesion by the Dpo4 polymerase, suggesting that stabilization of this bulged intermediate may be significant with regard to the biological processing of the lesion.

Structure determination by restrained molecular dynamics using NMR pseudocontact shifts as experimentally determined constraints

The structure of a DNA octamer d(TTGGCCAA)(2) complexed to chromomycin-A(3) and a single divalent cobalt ion has been solved by using the pseudocontact shifts due to the unpaired electrons on the cobalt. A protocol was developed and critically evaluated for using the pseudocontact shifts in structure determination. The pseudocontact shifts were input as experimental restraints in molecular dynamics simulations with or without NOE constraints. Both the magnitude and orientation of the susceptibility anisotropy tensor required for the shift calculations were determined during the simulations by iterative refinement. The pseudocontact shifts could be used to define the structure to a very high precision and accuracy compared with a corresponding NOE-determined structure. Convergence was obtained from different starting structures and tensors. A structure determination using both NOE's and pseudocontact shifts revealed a general agreement between the two data sets. However, some evidence for a discrepancy between NOE's and pseudocontact shifts was observed in the backbone and terminal base pairs of the DNA. Violations in shift or NOE restraints remaining in the final structures were examined and may be a reflection of motional averaging of the constraints and evidence for flexibility. This work demonstrates that pseudocontact shifts are a powerful tool for NMR structure determination.

Structural characterization of a novel Ca2+-binding protein from Entamoeba histolytica: structural basis for the observed functional differences with its isoform

A novel Ca(2+)-binding protein (EhCaBP2) was identified from the protozoan parasite Entamoeba histolytica. EhCaBP2 has 79% sequence identity with calcium-binding protein EhCaBP1. The 3D structure of EhCaBP2 was determined using multidimensional nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopic techniques. The study reveals that the protein consists of two globular domains connected by a short flexible linker region of four residues. On comparison of the 3D structure and dynamics of EhCaBP2 with those of EhCaBP1, it is found that they vary significantly in their N-terminal domains and interdomain linker. Immunofluorescence localization experiments revealed that EhCaBP1 and EhCaBP2 may not carry out similar functions, as their cellular distribution patterns are not the same. The functional differences between the two isoforms are explained on the basis of results obtained from the structural studies. The structural variation in the interdomain linker region and the formation of functionally important hydrophobic clefts in different regions of EhCaBP1 and EhCaBP2 provide interesting insights into the differences in the functionality of these two isoforms.

Solution structure of Pyrococcus furiosus RPP21, a component of the archaeal RNase P holoenzyme, and interactions with its RPP29 protein partner

RNase P is the ubiquitous ribonucleoprotein metalloenzyme responsible for cleaving the 5'-leader sequence of precursor tRNAs during their maturation. While the RNA subunit is catalytically active on its own at high monovalent and divalent ion concentrations, four protein subunits are associated with archaeal RNase P activity in vivo: RPP21, RPP29, RPP30, and POP5. These proteins have been shown to function in pairs: RPP21-RPP29 and POP5-RPP30. We have determined the solution structure of RPP21 from the hyperthermophilic archaeon Pyrococcus furiosus ( Pfu) using conventional and paramagnetic NMR techniques. Pfu RPP21 in solution consists of an unstructured N-terminus, two alpha-helices, a zinc binding motif, and an unstructured C-terminus. Moreover, we have used chemical shift perturbations to characterize the interaction of RPP21 with RPP29. The data show that the primary contact with RPP29 is localized to the two helices of RPP21. This information represents a fundamental step toward understanding structure-function relationships of the archaeal RNase P holoenzyme.

Numbat: an interactive software tool for fitting Deltachi-tensors to molecular coordinates using pseudocontact shifts

Pseudocontact shift (PCS) effects induced by a paramagnetic lanthanide bound to a protein have become increasingly popular in NMR spectroscopy as they yield a complementary set of orientational and long-range structural restraints. PCS are a manifestation of the chi-tensor anisotropy, the Deltachi-tensor, which in turn can be determined from the PCS. Once the Deltachi-tensor has been determined, PCS become powerful long-range restraints for the study of protein structure and protein-ligand complexes. Here we present the newly developed package Numbat (New User-friendly Method Built for Automatic Deltachi-Tensor determination). With a Graphical User Interface (GUI) that allows a high degree of interactivity, Numbat is specifically designed for the computation of the complete set of Deltachi-tensor parameters (including shape, location and orientation with respect to the protein) from a set of experimentally measured PCS and the protein structure coordinates. Use of the program for Linux and Windows operating systems is illustrated by building a model of the complex between the E. coli DNA polymerase III subunits epsilon186 and theta using PCS.

3'-Intercalation of a N2-dG 1R-trans-anti-benzo[c]phenanthrene DNA adduct in an iterated (CG)3 repeat

The conformation of the 1 R,2 S,3 R,4 S-benzo[ c]phenanthrene- N (2)-dG adduct, arising from trans opening of the (+)-1 S,2 R,3 R,4 S- anti-benzo[ c]phenanthrene diol epoxide, was examined in 5'- d(ATCGC XCGGCATG)-3'.5'-d(CATGCCG CGCGAT)-3', where X = 1 R,2 S,3 R,4 S-B[ c]P- N (2)-dG. This duplex, derived from the hisD3052 frameshift tester strain of Salmonella typhimurium, contains a (CG) 3 iterated repeat, a hotspot for frameshift mutagenesis. NMR experiments showed a disconnection in sequential NOE connectivity between X (4) and C (5), and in the complementary strand, they showed another disconnection between G (18) and C (19). In the imino region of the (1)H NMR spectrum, a resonance was observed at the adducted base pair X (4) x C (19). The X (4) N1H and G (18) N1H resonances shifted upfield as compared to the other guanine imino proton resonances. NOEs were observed between X (4) N1H and C (19) N (4)H and between C (5) N (4)H and G (18) N1H, indicating that base pairs X (4) x C (19) and C (5) x G (18) maintained Watson-Crick hydrogen bonding. No NOE connectivity was observed between X (4) and G (18) in the imino region of the spectrum. Chemical shift perturbations of greater than 0.1 ppm were localized at nucleotides X (4) and C (5) in the modified strand and G (18) and C (19) in the complementary strand. A total of 13 NOEs between the protons of the 1 R-B[ c]Ph moiety and the DNA were observed between B[ c]Ph and major groove aromatic or amine protons at base pairs X (4) x C (19) and 3'-neighbor C (5) x G (18). Structural refinement was achieved using molecular dynamics calculations restrained by interproton distances and torsion angle restraints obtained from NMR data. The B[ c]Ph moiety intercalated on the 3'-face of the X (4) x C (19) base pair such that the terminal ring of 1 R-B[ c]Ph threaded the duplex and faced into the major groove. The torsion angle alpha' [X (4)]-N3-C2-N2-B[ c]Ph]-C1 was calculated to be -177 degrees, maintaining an orientation in which the X (4) exocyclic amine remained in plane with the purine. The torsion angle beta' [X (4)]-C2-N2-[B[ c]Ph]-C1-C2 was calculated to be 75 degrees. This value governed the 3'-orientation of the B[ c]Ph moiety with respect to X (4). The helical rise between base pairs X (4) x C (19) and C (5) x G (18) increased and resulted in unwinding of the right-handed helix. The aromatic rings of the B[ c]Ph moiety were below the Watson-Crick hydrogen-bonding face of the modified base pair X (4) x C (19). The B[c]Ph moiety was stacked above nucleotide G (18), in the complementary strand.

Structure of the 1,N2-etheno-2'-deoxyguanosine adduct in duplex DNA at pH 8.6

The structure of the 1,N(2)-etheno-2'-deoxyguanosine (1,N(2)-epsilondG) adduct, arising from the reaction of vinyl chloride with dG, was determined in the oligonucleotide duplex 5'-d(CGCATXGAATCC)-3'.5'-d(GGATTCCATGCG)-3' (X=1,N(2)-epsilondG) at pH 8.6 using high resolution NMR spectroscopy. The exocyclic lesion prevented Watson-Crick base-pairing capability at the adduct site and resulted in an approximately 17 degrees C decrease in Tm of the oligodeoxynucleotide duplex. At neutral pH, conformational exchange resulted in spectral line broadening near the adducted site, and it was not possible to determine the structure. However, at pH 8.6, it was possible to obtain well-resolved (1)H NMR spectra. This enabled a total of 385 NOE-based distance restraints to be obtained, consisting of 245 intra- and 140 inter-nucleotide distances. The (31)P NMR spectra exhibited two downfield-shifted resonances, suggesting a localized perturbation of the DNA backbone. The two downfield (31)P resonances were assigned to G(7) and C(19). The solution structure was refined by molecular dynamics calculations restrained by NMR-derived distance and dihedral angle restraints, using a simulated annealing protocol. The generalized Born approximation was used to simulate solvent. The emergent structures indicated that the 1,N(2)-epsilondG-induced structural perturbation was localized at the X(6).C(19) base pair, and its 5'-neighbor T(5).A(20). Both 1,N(2)-epsilondG and the complementary dC adopted the anti conformation about the glycosyl bonds. The 1,N (2)-epsilondG adduct was inserted into the duplex but was shifted towards the minor groove as compared to dG in a normal Watson-Crick C.G base pair. The complementary cytosine was displaced toward the major groove. The 5'-neighbor T(5).A(20) base pair was destabilized with respect to Watson-Crick base pairing. The refined structure predicted a bend in the helical axis associated with the adduct site.

Structural basis for the observed differential magnetic anisotropic tensorial values in calcium binding proteins

Lanthanide ions (Ln(3+)), which have ionic radii similar to those of Ca(2+), can displace the latter in a calcium binding protein, without affecting its tertiary structure. The paramagnetic Ln(3+) possesses large anisotropic magnetic susceptibilities and produce pseudocontact shifts (PCSs), which have r(-3) dependence. The PCS can be seen for spins as far as 45 A from the paramagnetic ion. They aid in structure refinement of proteins by providing long-range distance constraints. Besides, they can be used to determine the interdomain orientation in multidomain proteins. This is particularly important in the context of a calcium binding protein from Entamoeba histolytica (EhCaBP), which consists of two globular domains connected by a flexible linker region containing 8 residues. As a first step to obtain the interdomain orientation in EhCaBP, a suite of 2D and 3D heteronuclear experiments were recorded on EhCaBP by displacing calcium with Ce(3+), Ho(3+), Er(3+), Tm(3+), Dy(3+), and Yb(3+) ions in separate experiments, and the PCS of (1)H(N) and (15)N spins were measured. Such data have been used in the refinement of the individual domain structures of the protein in parallel with the calculation of the respective magnetic anisotropy tensorial values, which differ substantially (2.1-2.8 times) from what is found in other Ca(2+) binding loops. This study provides a structural basis for such variations in the magnetic anisotropy tensorial values.

Efficient chi-tensor determination and NH assignment of paramagnetic proteins

Anisotropic magnetic susceptibility tensors chi of paramagnetic metal ions are manifested in pseudocontact shifts, residual dipolar couplings, and other paramagnetic observables that present valuable long-range information for structure determinations of protein-ligand complexes. A program was developed for automatic determination of the chi-tensor anisotropy parameters and amide resonance assignments in proteins labeled with paramagnetic metal ions. The program requires knowledge of the three-dimensional structure of the protein, the backbone resonance assignments of the diamagnetic protein, and a pair of 2D 15N-HSQC or 3D HNCO spectra recorded with and without paramagnetic metal ion. It allows the determination of reliable chi-tensor anisotropy parameters from 2D spectra of uniformly 15N-labeled proteins of fairly high molecular weight. Examples are shown for the 185-residue N-terminal domain of the subunit epsilon from E. coli DNA polymerase III in complex with the subunit theta and La3+ in its diamagnetic and Dy3+, Tb3+, and Er3+ in its paramagnetic form.

Lanthanide labeling offers fast NMR approach to 3D structure determinations of protein-protein complexes

A novel nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) strategy based on labeling with lanthanides achieves rapid determinations of accurate three-dimensional (3D) structures of protein-protein complexes. The method employs pseudocontact shifts (PCS) induced by a site-specifically bound lanthanide ion to anchor the coordinate system of the magnetic susceptibility tensor in the molecular frames of the two molecules. Simple superposition of the tensors detected in the two protein molecules brings them together in a 3D model of the protein-protein complex. The method is demonstrated with the 30 kDa complex between two subunits of Escherichia coli polymerase III, comprising the N-terminal domain of the exonuclease subunit epsilon and the subunit theta. The 3D structures of the individual molecules were docked based on a limited number of PCS observed in 2D 15N-heteronuclear single quantum coherence spectra. Degeneracies in the mutual orientation of the protein structures were resolved by the use of two different lanthanide ions, Dy3+ and Er3+.

Assignment strategy for fast relaxing signals: complete aminoacid identification in thulium substituted calbindin D 9K

Paramagnetic proteins generally contain regions with diverse relaxation properties. Nuclei in regions far from the metal center may behave like those in diamagnetic proteins, but those closer to the metal experience rapid relaxation with accompanying line broadening. We have used a set of NMR experiments optimized to capture data from these various concentric regions in assigning the signals from a paramagnetic Calbindin D 9K derivative in which one of the two calcium ions has been replaced by thulium(III). Normal double- and triple-resonance experiments with 1H detection were used in collecting data from nuclei in the diamagnetic-like region; these approaches identified signals from fewer than 50% of the amino acid residues (those with d > 17.5 A from thulium(III)). Paramagnetism-optimized two-dimensional NMR experiments with 1H detection were used in collecting data from nuclei in the next nearer region (d > 15 A). Standard (d > 14 A) and optimized (d > 9 A) 13C direct-detection experiments were used to capture data from nuclei in the next layer. Finally nuclei closest to the metal were detected by one-dimensional 13C (d > 5 A) and one-dimensional 15N data collection (d > 4.2 A). NMR signals were assigned on the basis of through-bond correlations and, for signals closest to the metal, pseudocontact shifts. The latter were determined from chemical shift differences between assigned signals in thulium(III) and lanthanum(III) derivatives of Calbindin D 9K and they were interpreted on the basis of a structural model for the lanthanide-substituted protein. This approach yielded assignments of at least one resonance per amino acid residue, including those in the thulium(III) coordination sphere.

Automated protein NMR structure determination using wavelet de-noised NOESY spectra

A major time-consuming step of protein NMR structure determination is the generation of reliable NOESY cross peak lists which usually requires a significant amount of manual interaction. Here we present a new algorithm for automated peak picking involving wavelet de-noised NOESY spectra in a process where the identification of peaks is coupled to automated structure determination. The core of this method is the generation of incremental peak lists by applying different wavelet de-noising procedures which yield peak lists of a different noise content. In combination with additional filters which probe the consistency of the peak lists, good convergence of the NOESY-based automated structure determination could be achieved. These algorithms were implemented in the context of the ARIA software for automated NOE assignment and structure determination and were validated for a polysulfide-sulfur transferase protein of known structure. The procedures presented here should be commonly applicable for efficient protein NMR structure determination and automated NMR peak picking.

Definition of a new information-based per-residue quality parameter

For biomolecular NMR structures typically only a poor correspondence is observed between statistics derived from the experimental input data and structural quality indicators obtained from the structure ensembles. Here, we investigate the relationship between the amount of available NMR data and structure quality. By generating datasets with a predetermined information content and evaluating the quality of the resulting structure ensembles we show that there is, in contrast to previous findings, a linear relation between the information contained in experimental data and structural quality. From this relation, a new quality parameter is derived that provides direct insight, on a per-residue basis, into the extent to which structural quality is governed by the experimental input data.

NMR Spectroscopy of Paramagnetic Metalloproteins

This article deals with the solution structure determination of paramagnetic metalloproteins by NMR spectroscopy. These proteins were believed not to be suitable for NMR investigations for structure determination until a decade ago, but eventually novel experiments and software protocols were developed, with the aim of making the approach suitable for the goal and as user-friendly and safe as possible. In the article, we also give hints for the optimization of experiments with respect to each particular metal ion, with the aim of also providing a handy tool for nonspecialists. Finally, a section is dedicated to the significant progress made on 13C direct detection, which reduces the negative effects of paramagnetism and may constitute a new chapter in the whole field of NMR spectroscopy.

The comparative study on the solution structures of the oxidized bovine microsomal cytochrome b5 and mutant V45H

A comparative study on the solution structures of bovine microsomal cytochrome b5 (Tb5) and the mutant V45H has been achieved by 1D and 2D 1H-NMR spectroscopy to clarify the differences in the solution conformations between these two proteins. The results reveal that the global folding of the V45H mutant in solution is unchanged, but the subtle changes exist in the orientation of the axial ligand His39, and heme vinyl groups. The side chain of His45 in V45H mutant extends to the outer edge of the heme pocket leaving a cavity at the site originally occupied by the inner methyl group of Val45 residue. In addition, the imidazole ring of axial ligand His39 rotates counterclockwise by approximately 3 degrees around the His-Fe-His axis, and the 4-heme vinyl group turns to the space vacated by the removed side chain due to the mutation. Furthermore, the helix III of the heme pocket undergoes outward displacement, while the linkage between helix II and III is shifted leftward. These observations are not only consistent with the pattern of the pseudocontact shifts of the heme protons, but also well account for the lower stability of V45H mutant against heat and urea.

Backbone-only restraints for fast determination of the protein fold: the role of paramagnetism-based restraints. Cytochrome b562 as an example

CH(alpha) residual dipolar couplings (Deltardc's) were measured for the oxidized cytochrome b562 from Escherichia coli as a result of its partial self-orientation in high magnetic fields due to the anisotropy of the overall magnetic susceptibility tensor. Both the low spin iron (III) heme and the four-helix bundle fold contribute to the magnetic anisotropy tensor. CH(alpha) Deltardc's, which span a larger range than the analogous NH values (already available in the literature) sample large space variations at variance with NH Deltardc's, which are largely isooriented within alpha helices. The whole structure is now significantly refined with the chemical shift index and CH(alpha) Deltardc's. The latter are particularly useful also in defining the molecular magnetic anisotropy parameters. It is shown here that the backbone folding can be conveniently and accurately determined using backbone restraints only, which include NOEs, hydrogen bonds, residual dipolar couplings, pseudocontact shifts, and chemical shift index. All these restraints are easily and quickly determined from the backbone assignment. The calculated backbone structure is comparable to that obtained by using also side chain restraint. Furthermore, the structure obtained with backbone only restraints is, in its whole, very similar to that obtained with the complete set of restraints. The paramagnetism based restraints are shown to be absolutely relevant, especially for Deltardc's.

Insights into Partially Folded or Unfolded States of Metalloproteins from Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) provides detailed insights into the conformational features of unfolded and partially folded proteins. In the case of metalloproteins, special attention should be devoted to the characterization of the properties of the metal binding sites, and specific approaches need to be developed depending on the nature of the metal ion and its coordination environment. At the same time, metal-based NMR parameters may help in getting a better picture of the average structural properties of the metalloprotein. A critical evaluation of the limits of applicability of paramagnetic effects for solution structure determination in partially folded or unfolded proteins is presented. The coupling between NMR characterization of structure and dynamic of the polypeptide chain and of the metal environment provides insights into the stabilizing role of metal ions in metalloproteins. The overall approach is illustrated for some case examples of increasing flexibility obtained far from native conditions for cytochrome c and superoxide dismutase, two metalloproteins that have been extensively studied in our lab and whose misfolded forms may be relevant for important biological processes.

Strategy for the study of paramagnetic proteins with slow electronic relaxation rates by nmr spectroscopy: application to oxidized human [2Fe-2S] ferredoxin

NMR studies of paramagnetic proteins are hampered by the rapid relaxation of nuclei near the paramagnetic center, which prevents the application of conventional methods to investigations of the most interesting regions of such molecules. This problem is particularly acute in systems with slow electronic relaxation rates. We present a strategy that can be used with a protein with slow electronic relaxation to identify and assign resonances from nuclei near the paramagnetic center. Oxidized human [2Fe-2S] ferredoxin (adrenodoxin) was used to test the approach. The strategy involves six steps: (1) NMR signals from (1)H, (13)C, and (15)N nuclei unaffected or minimally affected by paramagnetic effects are assigned by standard multinuclear two- and three-dimensional (2D and 3D) spectroscopic methods with protein samples labeled uniformly with (13)C and (15)N. (2) The very broad, hyperfine-shifted signals from carbons in the residues that ligate the metal center are classified by amino acid and atom type by selective (13)C labeling and one-dimensional (1D) (13)C NMR spectroscopy. (3) Spin systems involving carbons near the paramagnetic center that are broadened but not hyperfine-shifted are elucidated by (13)C[(13)C] constant time correlation spectroscopy (CT-COSY). (4) Signals from amide nitrogens affected by the paramagnetic center are assigned to amino acid type by selective (15)N labeling and 1D (15)N NMR spectroscopy. (5) Sequence-specific assignments of these carbon and nitrogen signals are determined by 1D (13)C[(15)N] difference decoupling experiments. (6) Signals from (1)H nuclei in these spin systems are assigned by paramagnetic-optimized 2D and 3D (1)H[(13)C] experiments. For oxidized human ferredoxin, this strategy led to assignments (to amino acid and atom type) for 88% of the carbons in the [2Fe-2S] cluster-binding loops (residues 43-58 and 89-94). These included complete carbon spin-system assignments for eight of the 22 residues and partial assignments for each of the others. Sequence-specific assignments were determined for the backbone (15)N signals from nine of the 22 residues and ambiguous assignments for five of the others.

Residual dipolar couplings in NMR structure analysis

Residual dipolar couplings (RDCs) have recently emerged as a new tool in nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) with which to study macromolecular structure and function in a solution environment. RDCs are complementary to the more conventional use of NOEs to provide structural information. While NOEs are local-distance restraints, RDCs provide long-range orientational information. RDCs are now widely utilized in structure calculations. Increasingly, they are being used in novel applications to address complex issues in structural biology such as the accurate determination of the global structure of oligonucleotides and the relative orientation of protein domains. This review briefly describes the theory and methods for obtaining RDCs and then describes the range of biological applications where RDCs have been used.

Effects of axial methionine coordination on the in-plane asymmetry of the heme electronic structure of cytochrome c

The paramagnetic susceptibility ( chi) tensors of the oxidized forms of thermophile Hydrogenobacter thermophilus cytochrome c(552) (Ht cyt c(552)) and a quintuple mutant (F7A/V13 M/F34Y/E43Y/V78I; qm) of mesophile Pseudomonas aeruginosa cytochrome c(551) (Pa cyt c(551)) have been determined on the basis of the redox-dependent (1)H NMR shift changes of the main-chain NH and C(alpha)H proton resonances of non-coordinated amino acid residues and the NMR structures of the reduced forms of the corresponding proteins (J. Hasegawa, T. Yoshida, T. Yamazaki, Y. Sambongi, Y. Yu, Y. Igarashi, T. Kodama, K. Yamazaki, Y. Kyogoku, Y. Kobayashi (1998) Biochemistry 37:9641-9649; J. Hasegawa, S. Uchiyama, Y. Tanimoto, M. Mizutani, Y. Kobayashi, Y. Sambongi,Y. Igarashi (2000) J Biol Chem 275:37824-37828). From the chi tensors determined, we obtained the contact shifts for heme methyl proton resonances, which provided the heme electronic structures of the oxidized forms of Ht cyt c(552) and qm. We also characterized the heme electronic structure of the cyanide adducts of the proteins, where the axial Met was replaced by an exogenous cyanide ion, through the analysis of (1)H NMR spectra. The results indicated that the heme electronic structures of both the proteins in their oxidized forms with axial His and Met coordination are largely different to each other, while those in their cyanide adducts are similar to each other. These results demonstrated that the orientation of the axial Met sulfur lone pair, with respect to heme, predominantly contributes to the spin delocalization into the porphyrin-pi system of heme in the oxidized proteins with axial His and Met coordination.

The solution structure of the oxidized bovine microsomal cytochrome b(5) mutant V61H

Using 1488 NOE constraints, 19 stereo-specific assignments, 13 pairs of H-bond constraints, and 140 pseudo-contact shift constraints, a family of 35 structures of bovine microsomal cytochrome b(5) mutant V61H has been obtained through the program PSEUDYANA. The family has been further refined by restrained energy minimization to give a family of final structures. The RMSD values of final structures with respect to the average structure are 0.45+/-0.11 and 0.96+/-0.10A for backbone and heavy atoms, respectively. The final Deltachi(ax) and Deltachi(rh) values are 2.34 x 10(-32) and -0.67 x 10(-32)m(3), respectively. The comparisons between the solution structures of mutant V61H and WT cytochrome b(5), and X-ray structure of the mutant V61H show that the global folding of the molecule in solution is unchanged and the side-chain of His61 deviates from the heme pocket and extends into the solvent like in its crystal structure. However, the helices around the heme pocket undergo outward global displacement while their local conformations are well maintained. Meanwhile, the heme ring shows a little off the heme pocket, which accounts for the lower stability of the mutant. Additionally, the axial ligand rings counterclockwise rotate around His39 N-Fe axis due to the mutation, which is confirmed by variation of the hyperfine shifts of the heme protons of V61H compared to those of WT cytochrome b(5).

Structural model for an alkaline form of ferricytochrome C

An (15)N-enriched sample of the yeast iso-1-ferricytochrome c triple variant (Lys72Ala/Lys79Ala/Cys102Thr) in an alkaline conformation was examined by NMR spectroscopy. The mutations were planned to produce a cytochrome c with a single conformer. Despite suboptimal conditions for the collection of spectra (i.e., pH approximately equal to 11), NMR remains a suitable investigation technique capable of taking advantage of paramagnetism. 76% of amino acids and 49% of protons were assigned successfully. The assignment was in part achieved through standard methods, in part through the identification of groups maintaining the same conformation as in the native protein at pH 7 and, for a few other residues, through a tentative analysis of internuclear distance predictions. Lys73 was assigned as the axial ligand together with His18. In this manner, 838 meaningful NOEs for 108 amino acids, 50 backbone angle constraints, and 203 pseudocontact shifts permitted the convergence of randomly generated structures to a family of conformers with a backbone RMSD of 1.5 +/- 0.2 A. Most of the native cytochrome c conformation is maintained at high pH. The NOE pattern that involves His18 clearly indicates that the proximal side of the protein, including the 20s and 40s loops, remains essentially intact. Structural differences are concentrated in the 70-80 loop, because of the replacement of Met80 by Lys73 as an axial ligand, and in the 50s helix facing that loop; as a consequence, there is increased exposure of the heme group to solvent. Based on several spectral features, we conclude that the folded polypeptide is highly fluxional.

Molecular dynamics simulations of metalloproteins

Molecular dynamics simulations are now commonly applied to metalloproteins, despite the challenges introduced by the presence of metal ions. Force field parameters are nowadays available also for these 'exotic' atoms and several biological systems have been successfully studied. Some of the most relevant results and methodological advancements are reviewed.

NMR study of the conformational transition of cytochrome c upon the displacement of Met80 by exogenous ligand: structural and magnetic characterization of azidoferricytochrome c

As the exogenous ligand-cytochrome c complexes were purported to represent models for the unfolding intermediate of cytochrome c, NMR spectroscopy has been utilized to study the azide adduct of horse heart cytochrome c. The structure of azidoferricytochrome c was modeled by restrained energy minimization using paramagenetic pseudocontact shifts as constraints. The bound azide moiety was found to be tilted approximately 15 degrees from the heme normal. The displacement of Met80 by the exogenous azide molecule causes large structural rearrangement in the distal cavity. Furthermore, the conformation transition associated with the swing out of the loop containing Met80 and the shift of the 50s-helix increases the solvent accessibility of the heme group. To elucidate the heme electronic structure of the complex, the paramagnetic 13C shifts were analyzed in terms of a model based on the pi molecular orbitals of the heme under perturbed D(4) symmetry. It turned out that the His-Fe bonding provides the protein constraint that orients the in-plane anisotropy in the complex. The electronic properties are in accordance with the calculated magnetic susceptibility anisotropy and the structural information.

Weak alignment offers new NMR opportunities to study protein structure and dynamics

Protein solution nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) can be conducted in a slightly anisotropic environment, where the orientational distribution of the proteins is no longer random. In such an environment, the large one-bond internuclear dipolar interactions no longer average to zero and report on the average orientation of the corresponding vectors relative to the magnetic field. The desired very weak ordering, on the order of 10(-3), can be induced conveniently by the use of aqueous nematic liquid crystalline suspensions or by anisotropically compressed hydrogels. The resulting residual dipolar interactions are scaled down by three orders of magnitude relative to their static values, but nevertheless can be measured at high accuracy. They are very precise reporters on the average orientation of bonds relative to the molecular alignment frame, and they can be used in a variety of ways to enrich our understanding of protein structure and function. Applications to date have focused primarily on validation of structures, determined by NMR, X-ray crystallography, or homology modeling, and on refinement of structures determined by conventional NMR approaches. Although de novo structure determination on the basis of dipolar couplings suffers from a severe multiple minimum problem, related to the degeneracy of dipolar coupling relative to inversion of the internuclear vector, a number of approaches can address this problem and potentially can accelerate the NMR structure determination process considerably. In favorable cases, where large numbers of dipolar couplings can be measured, inconsistency between measured values can report on internal motions.

Zinc-substituted Desulfovibrio gigas desulforedoxins: resolving subunit degeneracy with nonsymmetric pseudocontact shifts

Desulfovibrio gigas desulforedoxin (Dx) consists of two identical peptides, each containing one [Fe-4S] center per monomer. Variants with different iron and zinc metal compositions arise when desulforedoxin is produced recombinantly from Escherichia coli. The three forms of the protein, the two homodimers [Fe(III)/Fe(III)]Dx and [Zn(II)/Zn(II)]Dx, and the heterodimer [Fe(III)/Zn(II)]Dx, can be separated by ion exchange chromatography on the basis of their charge differences. Once separated, the desulforedoxins containing iron can be reduced with added dithionite. For NMR studies, different protein samples were prepared labeled with (15)N or (15)N + (13)C. Spectral assignments were determined for [Fe(II)/Fe(II)]Dx and [Fe(II)/Zn(II)]Dx from 3D (15)N TOCSY-HSQC and NOESY-HSQC data, and compared with those reported previously for [Zn(II)/Zn(II)]Dx. Assignments for the (13)C(alpha) shifts were obtained from an HNCA experiment. Comparison of (1)H-(15)N HSQC spectra of [Zn(II)/Zn(II)]Dx, [Fe(II)/Fe(II)]Dx and [Fe(II)/Zn(II)]Dx revealed that the pseudocontact shifts in [Fe(II)/Zn(II)]Dx can be decomposed into inter- and intramonomer components, which, when summed, accurately predict the observed pseudocontact shifts observed for [Fe(II)/Fe(II)]Dx. The degree of linearity observed in the pseudocontact shifts for residues >/=8.5 A from the metal center indicates that the replacement of Fe(II) by Zn(II) produces little or no change in the structure of Dx. The results suggest a general strategy for the analysis of NMR spectra of homo-oligomeric proteins in which a paramagnetic center introduced into a single subunit is used to break the magnetic symmetry and make it possible to obtain distance constraints (both pseudocontact and NOE) between subunits.