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Turkmen S, Backstrom T, Wahlstrom G, Andreen L, Johansson IM. Tolerance to allopregnanolone with focus on the GABA-A receptor. Br J Pharmacol 2011; 162:311-27. [PMID: 20883478 DOI: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2010.01059.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Many studies have suggested a relationship between stress, sex steroids, and negative mental and mood changes in humans. The progesterone metabolite allopregnanolone is a potent endogenous ligand of the γ-amino butyric acid -A (GABA-A) receptor, and the most discussed neuroactive steroid. Variations in the levels of neuroactive steroids that influence the activity of the GABA-A receptor cause a vulnerability to mental and emotional pathology. There are physiological conditions in which allopregnanolone production increases acutely (e.g. stress) or chronically (e.g. menstrual cycle, pregnancy), thus exposing the GABA-A receptor to high and continuous allopregnanolone concentrations. In such conditions, tolerance to allopregnanolone may develop. We have shown that both acute and chronic tolerances can develop to the effects of allopregnanolone. Following the development of acute allopregnanolone tolerance, there is a decrease in the abundance of the GABA-A receptor α4 subunit and the expression of the α4 subunit mRNA in the ventral-posteriomedial nucleus of the thalamus. Little is known about the mechanism behind allopregnanolone tolerance and its effects on assembly of the GABA-A receptor composition. The exact mechanism of the allopregnanolone tolerance phenomena remains unclear. The purpose of this review is to summarize certain aspects of current knowledge concerning allopregnanolone tolerance and changes in the GABA-A receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sahruh Turkmen
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynaecology, Sundsvall County Hospital, Sweden.
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Abstract
Neurosteroids represent a class of endogenous steroids that are synthesized in the brain, the adrenals, and the gonads and have potent and selective effects on the GABAA-receptor. 3α-hydroxy A-ring reduced metabolites of progesterone, deoxycorticosterone, and testosterone are positive modulators of GABA(A)-receptor in a non-genomic manner. Allopregnanolone (3α-OH-5α-pregnan-20-one), 5α-androstane-3α, 17α-diol (Adiol), and 3α5α-tetrahydrodeoxycorticosterone (3α5α-THDOC) enhance the GABA-mediated Cl(-) currents acting on a site (or sites) distinct from the GABA, benzodiazepine, barbiturate, and picrotoxin binding sites. 3α5α-P and 3α5α-THDOC potentiate synaptic GABA(A)-receptor function and activate δ-subunit containing extrasynaptic receptors that mediate tonic currents. On the contrary, 3β-OH pregnane steroids and pregnenolone sulfate (PS) are GABA(A)-receptor antagonists and induce activation-dependent inhibition of the receptor. The activities of neurosteroid are dependent on brain regions and types of neurons. In addition to the slow genomic action of the parent steroids, the non-genomic, and rapid actions of neurosteroids play a significant role in the GABA(A)-receptor function and shift in mood and memory function. This review describes molecular mechanisms underlying neurosteroid action on the GABA(A)-receptor, mood changes, and cognitive functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingde Wang
- Section of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Department of Clinical Science, Umeå Neurosteroid Research Center, Umeå UniversityUmeå, Sweden
- *Correspondence: Mingde Wang, Section of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Department of Clinical Science, Umeå Neurosteroid Research Center, Umeå University, 901 85 Umeå, Sweden. e-mail:
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Guille C, Spencer S, Cavus I, Epperson CN. The role of sex steroids in catamenial epilepsy and premenstrual dysphoric disorder: implications for diagnosis and treatment. Epilepsy Behav 2008; 13:12-24. [PMID: 18346939 PMCID: PMC4112568 DOI: 10.1016/j.yebeh.2008.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2007] [Revised: 01/29/2008] [Accepted: 02/03/2008] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Despite our understanding of hormonal influences on central nervous system (CNS) function, there is still much to learn about the pathogenesis of menstrual cycle-linked disorders. A growing literature suggests that the influence of sex steroids on neurological and psychiatric disorders is in part mediated by an aberrant CNS response to neuroactive steroids. Although sex steroids such as estradiol, progesterone, and the progesterone derivative allopregnanolone (ALLO) influence numerous neurotransmitter systems, it is their potent effect on the brain's primary inhibitory and excitatory neurotransmitters gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glutamate that links the study of premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) and catamenial epilepsy (CE). After providing an overview of these menstrual cycle-linked disorders, this article focuses on the preclinical and clinical research investigating the role of estradiol and progesterone (via ALLO) in the etiology of PMDD and CE. Through exploration of the phenomenological and neurobiological overlap between CE and PMDD, we aim to highlight areas for future research and development of treatments for menstrual cycle-linked neuropsychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Constance Guille
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA.
| | - Susan Spencer
- Department of Neurology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Idil Cavus
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA,Department of Neurosurgery, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - C. Neill Epperson
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA,Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
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McLean KJ, O'Brien TJ, Cook MJ, Vajda FJE. The influence of gender on the aggravation of absence seizures by carbamazepine in the low-dose pentylenetetrazol rat model. Seizure 2004; 13:208-16. [PMID: 15121127 DOI: 10.1016/s1059-1311(03)00144-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To determine whether carbamazepine (CBZ) aggravates absence seizures in the low-dose pentylenetetrazol (PTZ) rat model in both male and female animals, and investigate for gender differences. METHODS Inbred Sprague-Dawley rats were implanted with EEG electrodes. Seven days later PTZ (20 mg/kg, i.p.) was administered following pre-treatment with vehicle or CBZ (20 mg/kg, i.p.) and the occurrence of spike-and-wave discharges (SWDs) on the EEG quantified. RESULTS The cumulative SWD for 90-minute post-PTZ was higher in the CBZ versus vehicle pre-treatment arm for both female (mean 110 seconds vs. 62 seconds; P = 0.03) and male (mean 89 seconds vs. 60 seconds; P = 0.03) rats. The increase in SWD duration in the CBZ arm was greater in female rats for the first five 15-minute intervals, but none attained statistical significance (P > 0.05). CBZ pre-treatment resulted in reductions in both SWD frequency (Hz) (male, P = 0.003; female, P < 0.0001) and latency to onset of SWD (male, P = 0.002). The frequency of SWD in CBZ pre-treated rats was lower in females (5.8 Hz vs. 6.1 Hz, P = 0.002) as was the decrease in the SWD burst duration following CBZ versus vehicle pre-treatment (-0.05 seconds vs. -0.25 seconds, P = 0.046). CONCLUSIONS CBZ consistently aggravates absence seizures in the low-dose PTZ model in both female and male rats. However, while some gender differences were found, the results failed to support the hypothesis that females are significantly more susceptible to aggravation of the number or duration of absence seizures by CBZ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen J McLean
- Australian Centre for Clinical Neuropharmacology, Raoul Wallenerg Centre, Melbourne, Vic., Australia
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Bäckström T, Andreen L, Birzniece V, Björn I, Johansson IM, Nordenstam-Haghjo M, Nyberg S, Sundström-Poromaa I, Wahlström G, Wang M, Zhu D. The role of hormones and hormonal treatments in premenstrual syndrome. CNS Drugs 2003; 17:325-42. [PMID: 12665391 DOI: 10.2165/00023210-200317050-00003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) is a menstrual cycle-linked condition with both mental and physical symptoms. Most women of fertile age experience cyclical changes but consider them normal and not requiring treatment. Up to 30% of women feel a need for treatment. The aetiology is still unclear, but sex steroids produced by the corpus luteum of the ovary are thought to be symptom provoking, as the cyclicity disappears in anovulatory cycles when a corpus luteum is not formed. Progestogens and progesterone together with estrogen are able to induce similar symptoms as seen in PMS. Symptom severity is sensitive to the dosage of estrogen. The response systems within the brain known to be involved in PMS symptoms are the serotonin and GABA systems. Progesterone metabolites, especially allopregnanolone, are neuroactive, acting via the GABA system in the brain. Allopregnanolone has similar effects as benzodiazepines, barbiturates and alcohol; all these substances are known to induce adverse mood effects at low dosages in humans and animals. SSRIs and substances inhibiting ovulation, such as gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) agonists, have proven to be effective treatments. To avoid adverse effects when high dosages of GnRH agonists are used, add-back hormone replacement therapy is recommended. Spironolactone also has a beneficial effect, although not as much as SSRIs and GnRH agonists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Torbjörn Bäckström
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Obstetrics and Gynecology, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden.
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Doretto MC, Oliveira-e-Silva M, Ferreira-Alves DL, Pires SG, Garcia-Cairasco N, Reis AM. Effect of lactation on the expression of audiogenic seizures: association with plasma prolactin profiles. Epilepsy Res 2003; 54:109-21. [PMID: 12837562 DOI: 10.1016/s0920-1211(03)00061-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Female Wistar rats and Wistar audiogenic rats (WARs) were used to investigate the potential roles of prolactin (PRL) and progesterone in the modulation of seizure expression. Animals were screened for seizure severity in both groups. All WARs at least displayed tonic-clonic convulsions followed by clonic spasms (TC) whereas none of the Wistar rats displayed seizures (Resistant). After seizures the plasma level of PRL in nulliparous female WARs increased about 8-fold compared to their basal levels and to the levels of Resistant animals. This value was still significantly higher than basal levels 15 min later. Lactation produced a decrease in the TC proportion in seizures in WARs both with and without pups. Two sub-populations of animals could be characterized: one that had TC suppressed (low seizure severity; LSS) and one that did not (high seizure severity; HSS). In animals of the LSS subgroup, either with or without pups, seizure severity decreased gradually and lowest values were seen on the 30th day after delivery. The temporal profile of plasma PRL during a 90-min period of suckling without sound stimulation showed significantly higher levels for LSS, the HSS levels being similar to those of the Resistant group. A progressive decrease in the group means for progesterone plasma concentration between the 9th and 29th days of lactation was detected in Resistant rats (P<0.05) but not in WARs. No significant differences between groups were revealed by comparison of the overall means. Taken together these data confirm the presence of a clear-cut post-ictal PRL peak after TC with a decrease in seizure severity in female WARs with and without pups. An eventual long-term role of PRL in modulating seizure activity might be related to the multifactorial physiological conditions of both pregnancy and lactation.
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Affiliation(s)
- M C Doretto
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Avenida Antonio Carlos, 6627, CEP 31270-901-Campus Pampulha, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil.
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Zinder O, Dar DE. Neuroactive steroids: their mechanism of action and their function in the stress response. ACTA PHYSIOLOGICA SCANDINAVICA 1999; 167:181-8. [PMID: 10606819 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-201x.1999.00579.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Steroids are usually identified as genomic regulators, yet recently a body of evidence has accumulated demonstrating specific plasma membrane effects, as well as coordinative effects, of some steroids on both membrane and intracellular receptors. The resulting rapid (<1 min) modulation of cellular activity has strongly suggested a non-genomic, and possibly modulatory, role for certain steroid compounds, and dramatic effects on membranes of excitable as well as other tissues have been demonstrated. Steroid synthesis and metabolism have been shown to exist in the CNS, and the effects have been seen in both the central and peripheral nervous systems. The major groups of neuroactive steroids, and their metabolites, have been progesterone, deoxycorticosterone, and some androgens, notably dihydroxyepiandrosterone (DHEA). These compounds show increased concentrations both in blood and in the brain following stress and they have also been associated with anxiolytic effects and antiepileptic activity. In the periphery, some of these compounds show remarkable inhibitory effects on the secretion of catecholamines and other neurotransmitters. The mechanism for the majority of the effects of these steroids is via their effect on receptor-mediated binding to ligand-gated ion channels. Activation of the GABAA receptor complex, resulting in the opening of its central chloride channel, is the major target of the neuroactive steroids, resulting in re-polarization of the plasma membrane and inhibition of further neuronal firing. The anxiolytic, anti-convulsant and sedative-hypnotic actions of these neuroactive steroids have resulted in their being used as therapeutic agents for the treatment of anxiety, epilepsy, insomnia, and possibly for the alteration of pain thresholds.
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Affiliation(s)
- O Zinder
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Rambam Medical Center, and the Technion, Israel Institute of Technology, Faculty of Medicine, Haifa, Israel
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Budziszewska B, Van Luijtelaar G, Coenen AM, Leśkiewicz M, Lasoń W. Effects of neurosteroids on spike-wave discharges in the genetic epileptic WAG/Rij rat. Epilepsy Res 1999; 33:23-9. [PMID: 10022363 DOI: 10.1016/s0920-1211(98)00067-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Effects of i.p. administration of the neurosteroids, allopregnanolone and pregnenolone sulfate, were studied in WAG/Rij rats, a genetic model for generalized absence epilepsy. EEG recordings showed that allopregnanolone, a positive modulator of the GABA(A) receptor, in doses ranging from 5 to 20 mg/kg, increased dose-dependently the number- and total duration of spike-wave discharges. Pregnenolone sulfate, a positive modulator of NMDA receptors, also increased those parameters, though only at the highest dose used (100 mg/kg). Significant changes in spike-wave discharges occurred during the first hour post-injection and were not accompanied with behavioral alterations. The obtained data indicate that both these neurosteroids aggravate the spike-wave activity. This finding contrasts with the anti-convulsant effects of some neurosteroids and they point to a different pharmacological profile of epilepsy with convulsive or non-convulsive seizures.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Budziszewska
- Department of Endocrinology, Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kraków
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Lephart ED, Ladle DR, Jacobson NA, Rhees RW. Inhibition of brain 5 alpha-reductase in pregnant rats: effects on enzymatic and behavioral activity. Brain Res 1996; 739:356-60. [PMID: 8955960 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-8993(96)01068-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Medial basal hypothalamic (MBH) 5 alpha-reductase activity was significantly blocked with a known inhibitor, Proscar (Finasteride), in pregnant rats while their open-field behavior was quantified during the last week of pregnancy. In control animals, open-field behavior significantly decreased (in a stair-step fashion) as a function of increasing gestational age. Conversely, in Proscar-treated animals open-field values significantly increased on day 15 and 17 of gestation compared to control values. These data indicate that inhibition of MBH 5 alpha-reductase during pregnancy significantly increased open-field activity levels during late gestation in rats and provides evidence for a link between the production of 5 alpha-reduced metabolites of progesterone in brain and behavioral activity during pregnancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- E D Lephart
- Department of Zoology, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA.
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