Nanomaterials for Cancer Precision Medicine

Oral squamous cell carcinoma: Insights into cellular heterogeneity, drug resistance, and evolutionary trajectories

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) can lead to metastasis and high mortality rates known for its aggressive and invasive properties. Currently, primary treatment options of surgical resection, chemotherapy and radiotherapy have many therapeutic limitations for OSCC patients due to its dynamic evolutionary pathways and the development of resistance to conventional therapies. Moreover, previous studies fail to emphasize the roles of cellular heterogeneity, drug resistance, and evolutionary trajectories in OSCC. This review explores the intricate tumor microenvironment landscape of OSCC, focusing on the cellular heterogeneity, drug resistance, and evolutionary trajectories as well as genetic, epigenetic, and environmental risk factors contributing to the OSCC progression. Tumor heterogeneity arises from environmental exposures (e.g., tobacco, HPV infection, dietary carcinogens) that drive clonal evolution, creating subpopulations of cells with distinct mutational profiles and therapeutic vulnerabilities. Recent advances in in the precision medicine and combination therapy of OSCC paves the way for innovative therapeutic strategies, such as targeting molecular subclones through real-time monitoring and leveraging computational models to predict treatment response. By recognizing tumor heterogeneity as both a driver of therapeutic resistance and a therapeutic target, precision medicine frameworks can integrate environmental risk factor data, molecular profiling, and early detection tools to optimize outcomes. This review underscores the necessity for a multidisciplinary approach to understand and combat the complexity of OSCC, proposing directions for future research to enhance diagnosis and treatment efficacy.

Advancing targeted therapies in pancreatic cancer: Leveraging molecular abberrations for therapeutic success

Pancreatic cancer is one of the most deadly with poor prognosis and overall survival rate due to the dense stroma in the tumors which often is challenging for the delivery of drug to penetrate deep inside the tumor bed and usually results in the progression of cancer. The conventional treatment such as chemotherapy, radiotherapy or surgery shows a minimal benefit in the survival due to the drug resistance, poor penetration, less radiosensitivity or recurrence of tumor. There is an urgent demand to develop molecular-level targeted therapies to achieve therapeutic efficacy in the pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) patients. The precision oncology focuses on the unique attributes of the patient such as epigenome, proteome, genome, microbiome, lifestyle and diet habits which contributes to promote oncogenesis. The targeted therapy helps to target the mutated proteins responsible for controlling growth, division and metastasis of tumor in the cancer cells. It is very important to consider all the attributes of the patient to provide the suitable personalized treatment to avoid any severe side effects. In this review, we have laid emphasis on the precision medicine; the utmost priority is to improve the survival of cancer patients by targeting molecular mutations through transmembrane proteins, inhibitors, signaling pathways, immunotherapy, gene therapy or the use of nanocarriers for the delivery at the tumor site. It will become beneficial therapeutic window to be considered for the advanced stage pancreatic cancer patients to prolong their survival rate.

Research Trends on Nanomaterials and Hepatocellular Carcinoma From 1999 to 2024: A Bibliometric Analysis

Objective

Extensive exploratory studies have been conducted and promising progress has been made in the use of nanomaterials for the diagnosis and treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Here, we aimed to reveal the evolution and trends in this field through bibliometric analysis.

Methods

English-language publications (1999-2024) in the field of nanomaterials and HCC were retrieved from the Web of Science database, and eligible articles were selected for bibliometric analysis (data extraction, statistical analysis, and visualization) using VOSviewer and Citespace software.

Results

A total of 1617 eligible publications were analyzed. The number of publications increased rapidly from 2012 and peaked in 2020. China contributed the most publications, and the United States had the most citations. The Chinese Academy of Sciences was the most influential institution. The "International Journal of Nanomedicine (DOVE Medical)" published the most articles, while "Biomaterials (Elsevier)" was the most influential journal. Jie Tian had the highest number of publications, and Dan Shao had the highest average citation per article. Keyword analysis revealed that nanoparticles for targeted drug delivery, therapy and imaging of HCC were research hotspots. Keywords with citation bursts in the last three years included photodynamic therapy, sorafenib, and tumor microenvironment. Nano-vaccines, nano-antibodies, and synergistic therapies were emerging therapeutic strategies. A total of seven clinical trials were published, but to date there have been no major breakthroughs in HCC therapy using nanomaterials.

Conclusion

Research on nanomaterials and HCC has shown an overall upward trend, with research hotspots and frontiers focusing on nanoparticle-targeted chemotherapies, photodynamic therapy, and related tumor microenvironment research.

Exosomal miRNA-based theranostics in cervical cancer: bridging diagnostics and therapy

Cervical cancer (CC) remains a significant global health burden, particularly in low- and middle-income countries, where access to effective screening and treatment is limited. Despite advancements in conventional therapies, such as surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy, challenges related to late-stage diagnosis, treatment resistance, and disease recurrence persist. The emergence of microRNAs (miRNAs) as key regulators of gene expression has revolutionized cancer diagnostics and therapeutics. Exosomal miRNAs, in particular, have garnered attention due to their stability, detectability in bodily fluids, and pivotal roles in tumor progression, metastasis, and immune modulation. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the role of exosomal miRNAs in the theranostic landscape of CC. We explore their involvement in disease pathogenesis, highlighting their potential as minimally invasive diagnostic biomarkers for early detection and disease monitoring. Furthermore, we examine their utility in therapeutic strategies, including miRNA-mediated drug delivery systems and miRNA-targeted interventions to overcome chemoresistance. Integrating exosomal miRNA profiling with current diagnostic modalities could enhance screening sensitivity and specificity, while miRNA-based therapies offer novel avenues to improve treatment efficacy. This review discusses recent advancements in miRNA research, current challenges in clinical translation, and future perspectives on leveraging exosomal miRNAs for personalized CC care.

Engineered nanotransporters for efficient RNAi delivery in plant protection applications

RNA interference (RNAi) is increasingly used for plant protection against pathogens and pests. However, the traditional delivery method causes plant tissue damage, is affected by environmental factors, and faces difficulties in penetrating the barriers of cell walls and the limitations of plant species, ultimately leading to low delivery efficiency. With advances in nanotechnology, nanomaterials (NMs) have been identified as effective carriers for nucleic acid delivery because of their ability to operate independently of external mechanical forces, prevent degradation by bioenzymes, exhibit good biocompatibility, and offer high loading capacity. This review summarizes the application of NM-mediated RNAi against plant pathogens and pests, focusing on how different NMs break through the cell barriers of plants, pathogens, and pests according to their size, morphology, and charge characteristics. Furthermore, we discuss the advantages and improvement strategies of NMs as nucleic acid delivery carriers, alongside assessing their potential application for the management of plant pathogens and pests.

Regulating Intratumoral Fungi With Hydrogels: A Novel Approach to Modulating the Tumor Microbiome for Cancer Therapy

BACKGROUND

Fungi in tumors act as a double-edged sword, potentially worsening or alleviating malignancy based on the ecological balance within the tumor microenvironment (TME). Hydrogels, as innovative drug delivery systems, are poised to redefine treatment paradigms. As advanced biomaterials, they offer a versatile platform for encapsulating and releasing antifungal agents and immunomodulators, responding to the TME's unique demands.

METHODS

We have conducted and collated numerous relevant reviews and studies in recent years from three aspects: Hydrogels, intra-tumoral fungi, and tumor microbe microenvironment, in the hope of identifying the connections between hydrogels and intra-tumoral microbes.

RESULTS

This review underscores the crucial role of intra-tumoral microbes, particularly fungi, in tumorigenesis, progression, and treatment efficacy. At the same time, we concentrated on the findings of hydrogels investigations, with their remarkable adaptability to the tumor microenvironment emerge as intelligent drug delivery systems.

CONCLUSIONS

Hydrogels unique ability to precisely target and modulate the tumor microflora, including fungi, endows them with a significant edge in enhancing treatment efficacy. This innovative approach not only holds great promise for improving cancer therapy outcomes but also paves the way for developing novel strategies to control metastasis and prevent cancer recurrence.

Molecular understanding of transmembrane transport of mRNA carried by graphene oxide: Effect of membrane tension

In recent years, graphene oxide (GO) has emerged as a promising nanocarrier for targeted mRNA delivery. However, the detailed molecular mechanisms governing its transmembrane transport remain poorly understood. Here, we employ molecular simulations to systematically investigate how membrane surface tension and binding configurations influence the transmembrane behavior of GO-mRNA nanocomplexes. Our findings reveal a membrane tension-dependent entry pathway that nanocomplex entry cell from adhesion/penetration to endocytosis, suggesting a potential mechanism for tumor cell drug resistance development. Furthermore, we demonstrate distinct transmembrane dynamics process for three predominant GO-mRNA binding modes, exhibiting variations in translocation velocity, penetration depth, and resultant membrane deformation. These computational insights provide crucial theoretical guidance for engineering optimized mRNA delivery carrier, potentially advancing the biomedical application of GO-based nanoplatforms in gene therapy and precision oncology.

Ultrafast synthesis of L-His-Fe3O4 nanozymes with enhanced peroxidase-like activity for effective antibacterial applications

Background: Bacterial resistance remains a significant challenge, necessitating the development of new antibacterial strategies. This study introduces a rapidly synthesized L-histidine- Fe3O4 (L-His-Fe3O4) nanozyme with enhanced peroxidase (POD)-like activity, designed to improve antibacterial efficacy and accelerate the healing of bacteria-infected wounds. Methods: We successfully synthesized L-His-Fe3O4 using an ultrafast, room-temperature synthesis method, and observed its anti-infection effect and explored its anti-infection mechanism through in vivo and in vitro antibacterial experiments. Results: We produced L-His-Fe3O4 cost-effectively while preserving L-His, which was essential for its catalytic and antibacterial functions. The resulting nanozyme demonstrated exceptional antibacterial activity against both Gram-positive (S. aureus) and Gram-negative (E. coli) bacteria. In vivo experiments revealed that L-His-Fe3O4 outperformed vancomycin in reducing bacterial viability and effectively promoting wound healing, all while maintaining excellent biosafety with no adverse effects on blood or liver functions. Discussion: These findings highlight the potential of L-His-Fe3O4 for large-scale production and practical use in treating bacterial infections, offering a promising approach to combating antibiotic-resistant pathogens.

Microfluidics for Nanomedicine Delivery

Nanomedicine is revolutionizing precision medicine, providing targeted, personalized treatment options. Lipid-based nanomedicines offer distinct benefits including high potency, targeted delivery, extended retention in the body, reduced toxicity, and lower required doses. These characteristics make lipid-based nanoparticles ideal for drug delivery in areas such as gene therapy, cancer treatment, and mRNA vaccines. However, traditional bulk synthesis methods for LNPs often produce larger particle sizes, significant polydispersity, and low encapsulation efficiency, which can reduce the therapeutic effectiveness. These issues primarily result from uneven mixing and limited control over particle formation during the synthesis. Microfluidic technology has emerged as a solution, providing precise control over particle size, uniformity, and encapsulation efficiency. In this mini review, we introduce the state-of-the-art microfluidic systems for lipid-based nanoparticle synthesis and functionalization. We include the working principles of different types of microfluidic systems, the use of microfluidic systems for LNP synthesis, cargo encapsulation, and nanomedicine delivery. In the end, we briefly discuss the clinical use of LNPs enabled by microfluidic devices.

Microfluidic Nanoparticle Separation for Precision Medicine

A deeper understanding of disease heterogeneity highlights the urgent need for precision medicine. Microfluidics, with its unique advantages, such as high adjustability, diverse material selection, low cost, high processing efficiency, and minimal sample requirements, presents an ideal platform for precision medicine applications. As nanoparticles, both of biological origin and for therapeutic purposes, become increasingly important in precision medicine, microfluidic nanoparticle separation proves particularly advantageous for handling valuable samples in personalized medicine. This technology not only enhances detection, diagnosis, monitoring, and treatment accuracy, but also reduces invasiveness in medical procedures. This review summarizes the fundamentals of microfluidic nanoparticle separation techniques for precision medicine, starting with an examination of nanoparticle properties essential for separation and the core principles that guide various microfluidic methods. It then explores passive, active, and hybrid separation techniques, detailing their principles, structures, and applications. Furthermore, the review highlights their contributions to advancements in liquid biopsy and nanomedicine. Finally, it addresses existing challenges and envisions future development spurred by emerging technologies such as advanced materials science, 3D printing, and artificial intelligence. These interdisciplinary collaborations are anticipated to propel the platformization of microfluidic separation techniques, significantly expanding their potential in precision medicine.

Gold Nanoparticle-based Biosensors for Point-of-Care Diagnostics: A Review of Sensing Nanoparticle Applications and Future Prospects

Point of Care Diagnostics (POCD) is quintessential in hospitals and the healthcare sector as the secants uplift the quality of medical care and the life of a patient by facilitating quick identification of the underlying pathological condition. Nanotechnology can provide opportunities and has potential in the development of new-age sensing/diagnostic tools. Owing to extraordinary features (e.g., higher density, effective catalysis, good conduction, biocompatibility, inertness, and greater surface-to-volume ratio), gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) are frequently employed in POCT (Point-of-Care-Testing). Gold nanoparticles-based colorimetric methods are widely used in the rapid, sensitive, and selective detection of analytes/target molecules. AuNPs description is critical for their possible utility in prophylaxis, diagnostics, and treatment of an ailment. AuNPs interact with organic/inorganic target molecules to generate colorimetric shift that enables the accurate, precise, and subtle recognition of biologicals (e.g., microorganisms, cellular components, and proteins) and metal ions. This review focused on the need for AuNPs-based colorimetric application in prophylaxis, diagnostics, and treatment in healthcare and reviewed the future outlook of these AuNPs for biological applications. Different synthesis methods of AuNPs, their morphology, and characterization, including their surface functionalization, will be discussed in detail. AuNPs are very much preferable nanomaterials owing to exclusive optical, electrical, and photothermal features. AuNPsbased colorimetric biosensors are simple and possess great utility, yet these offer a robust technique to enable visual, quantitative analysis.

Glioblastoma therapy: State of the field and future prospects

Glioblastoma (GB) is a cancerous brain tumor that originates from glial cells and leads to thousands of deaths each year and a five-year survival of only 6.8 %. Treatments for GB include surgery, chemotherapy, radiation, and immunotherapy. GB is an incurable fatal disease, necessitating the development of innovative strategies to find a developing effective therapy. Genetic therapies may be crucial in treating GB by identifying the mutations and amplifications of multiple genes, which drive its proliferation and spread. Use of small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) provides a novel technology used to suppress the genes associated with disease, which forms a basis for targeted therapy in GB and its stem cell population, which are recognized for their ability to develop resistance to chemotherapy and tumorigenic capabilities. This review examines the use of siRNAs in GB, emphasizing their effectiveness in suppressing key oncogenes and signaling pathways associated with tumor development, invasion, stemness, and resistance to standard treatments. siRNA-based gene silencing is a promising approach for developing targeted therapeutics against GB and associated stem cell populations, potentially enhancing patient outcomes and survival rates in this devastating disease.

Lipid nanoparticle-mediated RNA delivery for immune cell modulation

Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have emerged as the preeminent nonviral drug delivery vehicles for nucleic acid therapeutics, as exemplified by their usage in the mRNA COVID-19 vaccines. As a safe and highly modular delivery platform, LNPs are attractive for a wide range of applications. In addition to vaccines, LNPs are being utilized as platforms for other immunoengineering efforts, especially as cancer immunotherapies by modulating immune cells and their functionality via nucleic acid delivery. In this review, we focus on the methods and applications of LNP-based immunotherapy in five cell types: T cells, NK cells, macrophages, stem cells, and dendritic cells. Each of these cell types has wide-reaching applications in immunotherapy but comes with unique challenges and delivery barriers. By combining knowledge of immunology and nanotechnology, LNPs can be developed for improved immune cell targeting and transfection, ultimately working toward novel clinical therapeutics.

Nanoparticles and bone microenvironment: a comprehensive review for malignant bone tumor diagnosis and treatment

Malignant bone tumors, which are difficult to treat with current clinical strategies, originate from bone tissues and can be classified into primary and secondary types. Due to the specificity of the bone microenvironment, the results of traditional means of treating bone tumors are often unsatisfactory, so there is an urgent need to develop new treatments for malignant bone tumors. Recently, nanoparticle-based approaches have shown great potential in diagnosis and treatment. Nanoparticles (NPs) have gained significant attention due to their versatility, making them highly suitable for applications in bone tissue engineering, advanced imaging techniques, and targeted drug delivery. For diagnosis, NPs enhance imaging contrast and sensitivity by integrating targeting ligands, which significantly improve the specific recognition and localization of tumor cells for early detection. For treatment, NPs enable targeted drug delivery, increasing drug accumulation at tumor sites while reducing systemic toxicity. In conclusion, understanding bone microenvironment and using the unique properties of NPs holds great promise in improving disease management, enhancing treatment outcomes, and ultimately improving the quality of life for patients with malignant bone tumors. Further research and development will undoubtedly contribute to the advancement of personalized medicine in the field of bone oncology.

Enzyme-instructed intramitochondrial polymerization for enhanced anticancer treatment without the development of drug-resistance

Intracellular polymerization in living cells motivated chemists to generate polymeric structures with a multitude of possibilities to interact with biomacromolecules. However, out-of-control of the intracellular chemical reactions would be an obstacle restricting its application, providing the toxicity of non-targeted cells. Here, we reported intracellular thioesterase-mediated polymerization for selectively occurring polymerization using disulfide bonds in cancer cells. The acetylated monomers did not form disulfide bonds even under an oxidative environment, but they could polymerize into the polymeric structure after cleavage of acetyl groups only when encountered activity of thioesterase enzyme. Furthermore, acetylated monomers could be self-assembled with doxorubicin, providing doxorubicin loaded micelles for efficient intracellular delivery of drug and monomers. Since thioesterase enzymes were overexpressed in cancer cells specifically, the micelles were disrupted under activity of the enzyme and the polymerization could occur selectively in the cancer mitochondria. The resulting polymeric structures disrupted the mitochondrial membrane, thus activating the cellular death of cancer cells with high selectivity. This strategy selectively targets diverse cancer cells involving drug-resistant cells over normal cells. Moreover, the mitochondria targeting strategy overcomes the development of drug resistance even with repeated treatment. This approach provides a way for selective intracellular polymerization with desirable anticancer treatment.

Nanomaterial-Based Repurposing of Macrophage Metabolism and Its Applications

Macrophage immunotherapy represents an emerging therapeutic approach aimed at modulating the immune response to alleviate disease symptoms. Nanomaterials (NMs) have been engineered to monitor macrophage metabolism, enabling the evaluation of disease progression and the replication of intricate physiological signal patterns. They achieve this either directly or by delivering regulatory signals, thereby mapping phenotype to effector functions through metabolic repurposing to customize macrophage fate for therapy. However, a comprehensive summary regarding NM-mediated macrophage visualization and coordinated metabolic rewiring to maintain phenotypic equilibrium is currently lacking. This review aims to address this gap by outlining recent advancements in NM-based metabolic immunotherapy. We initially explore the relationship between metabolism, polarization, and disease, before delving into recent NM innovations that visualize macrophage activity to elucidate disease onset and fine-tune its fate through metabolic remodeling for macrophage-centered immunotherapy. Finally, we discuss the prospects and challenges of NM-mediated metabolic immunotherapy, aiming to accelerate clinical translation. We anticipate that this review will serve as a valuable reference for researchers seeking to leverage novel metabolic intervention-matched immunomodulators in macrophages or other fields of immune engineering.

pH-responsive self-assembled nanoparticles for tumor-targeted drug delivery

Recent advances in the field of drug delivery have opened new avenues for the development of novel nanodrug delivery systems (NDDS) in cancer therapy. Self-assembled nanoparticles (SANPs) based on tumour microenvironment have great advantages in improving antitumor effect, and pH-responsive SANPs prepared by the combination of pH-responsive nanomaterials and self-assembly technology can effectively improve the efficacy and reduce the systemic toxicity of antitumor drugs. In this review, we describe the characteristics of self-assembly and its driving force, the mechanism of pH-responsive NDDS, and the nanomaterials for pH-responsive SANPs type. A series of pH-responsive SANPs for tumour-targeted drug delivery are discussed, with an emphasis on the relation between structural features and theranostic performance.

Ferroptosis inducers: A new frontier in cancer therapy

Ferroptosis represents a non-apoptotic form of programmed cell death characterized by iron-dependent lipid peroxidation. This cell death modality not only facilitates the direct elimination of cancer cells, but also enhances their susceptibility to other pharmacological anti-cancer agents. The burgeoning interest in ferroptosis has been driven by a growing body of evidence that underscores the efficiency and minimal toxicity of ferroptosis inducers. Traditional inducers, such as erastin and RSL3 have shown substantial promise in clinical applications due to their potent therapeutic effects. Their significant potential of these inducers has spurred the development of a variety of small molecule ferroptosis inducers. These novel inducers boast an enhanced structural variety, improved metabolic stability, the capability to initiate ferroptosis without triggering apoptosis, making them well-suited for in vivo use. Despite these advancements, challenges still remain, particularly concerning the drug delivery, tumor specificity, and circulation duration of these small molecules in vivo. Addressing these challenges, contemporary research has pivoted towards innovative delivery systems tailored for ferroptosis inducers to facilitate precise, targeted, and synegestic therapeutic delivery. This review scrutinizes the latest progress in small molecule ferroptosis inducers and nano drug delivery systems geared towards ferroptosis sensitization. Furthermore, it delineated the prospective therapeutic advantages and the existing hurdles in the development of ferroptosis inducers for malignant tumor treatment.

In Situ Mitochondrial Biomineralization for Drug-Free Cancer Therapy

The common clinical chemotherapy often brings serious side effects to patients, mainly due to the off-target and leakage of toxic drugs. However, this is fatal for some specific clinical tumors, such as brain tumors and neuroma. This study performs a drug-free approach by encapsulating black phosphorus (BP) and calcium peroxide (CaO2) in liposomes with surface-modified triphenylphosphonium (BCLT) to develop mitochondria targeting calcification for cancer therapy without damaging normal cells. BCLT preferentially accumulates inside tumor mitochondria and then is activated by near-infrared (NIR) laser irradiation to produce abundant PO4 3- and Ca2+ to accelerate in situ mitochondrial mineralization, leading to mitochondrial dysfunction and cancer cell death. More importantly, both PO4 3- and Ca2+ are essential components of metabolism in the body, and random gradient diffusion or premature leakage does not cause damage to adjacent normal cells. This achievement promises to be an alternative to conventional chemotherapy in clinical practice for many specific tumor types.

Chimeric Peptide-Engineered Self-Delivery Nanomedicine for Photodynamic-Triggered Breast Cancer Immunotherapy by Macrophage Polarization

A systemic treatment strategy is urgently demanded to suppress the rapid growth and easy metastasis characteristics of breast cancer. In this work, a chimeric peptide-engineered self-delivery nanomedicine (designated as ChiP-CeR) for photodynamic-triggered breast cancer immunotherapy by macrophage polarization. Among these, ChiP-CeR is composed of the photosensitizer of chlorine e6 (Ce6) and the TLR7/8 agonist of lmiquimod (R837), which is further modified with tumor matrix targeting peptide (Fmoc-K(Fmoc)-PEG8-CREKA. ChiP-CeR is preferred to actively accumulate at the tumor site via specific recognition of fibronectin, which can eradicate primary tumor growth through photodynamic therapy (PDT). Meanwhile, the destruction of primary tumors would trigger immunogenic cell death (ICD) effects to release high-mobility group box-1(HMGB1) and expose calreticulin (CRT). Moreover, ChiP-CeR can also polarize M2-type tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) into M1-type TAMs, which can activate T cell antitumor immunity in combination with ICD. Overall, ChiP-CeR possesses superior antitumor effects against primary and lung metastatic tumors, which provide an applicable nanomedicine and a feasible strategy for the systemic management of metastatic breast cancer.

Autonomous Nanorobots as Miniaturized Surgeons for Intracellular Applications

Artificial nanorobots have emerged as promising tools for a wide range of biomedical applications, including biosensing, detoxification, and drug delivery. Their unique ability to navigate confined spaces with precise control extends their operational scope to the cellular or subcellular level. By combining tailored surface functionality and propulsion mechanisms, nanorobots demonstrate rapid penetration of cell membranes and efficient internalization, enhancing intracellular delivery capabilities. Moreover, their robust motion within cells enables targeted interactions with intracellular components, such as proteins, molecules, and organelles, leading to superior performance in intracellular biosensing and organelle-targeted cargo delivery. Consequently, nanorobots hold significant potential as miniaturized surgeons capable of directly modulating cellular dynamics and combating metastasis, thereby maximizing therapeutic outcomes for precision therapy. In this review, we provide an overview of the propulsion modes of nanorobots and discuss essential factors to harness propulsive energy from the local environment or external power sources, including structure, material, and engine selection. We then discuss key advancements in nanorobot technology for various intracellular applications. Finally, we address important considerations for future nanorobot design to facilitate their translation into clinical practice and unlock their full potential in biomedical research and healthcare.

Intelligent Size-Switchable Iron Carbide-Based Nanocapsules with Cascade Delivery Capacity for Hyperthermia-Enhanced Deep Tumor Ferroptosis

The ferroptosis pathway is recognized as an essential strategy for tumor treatment. However, killing tumor cells in deep tumor regions with ferroptosis agents is still challenging because of distinct size requirements for intratumoral accumulation and deep tumor penetration. Herein, intelligent nanocapsules with size-switchable capability that responds to acid/hyperthermia stimulation to achieve deep tumor ferroptosis are developed. These nanocapsules are constructed using poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid and Pluronic F127 as carrier materials, with Au-Fe2 C Janus nanoparticles serving as photothermal and ferroptosis agents, and sorafenib (SRF) as the ferroptosis enhancer. The PFP@Au-Fe2 C-SRF nanocapsules, designed with an appropriate size, exhibit superior intratumoral accumulation compared to free Au-Fe2 C nanoparticles, as evidenced by photoacoustic and magnetic resonance imaging. These nanocapsules can degrade within the acidic tumor microenvironment when subjected to laser irradiation, releasing free Au-Fe2 C nanoparticles. This enables them to penetrate deep into tumor regions and disrupt intracellular redox balance. Under the guidance of imaging, these PFP@Au-Fe2 C-SRF nanocapsules effectively inhibit tumor growth when exposed to laser irradiation, capitalizing on the synergistic photothermal and ferroptosis effects. This study presents an intelligent formulation based on iron carbide for achieving deep tumor ferroptosis through size-switchable cascade delivery, thereby advancing the comprehension of ferroptosis in the context of tumor theranostics.

A copper-platinum nanoplatform for synergistic photothermal and chemodynamic tumor therapy via ROS outburst and GSH exhaustion

A multifunctional nanoplatform is obtained by modifying copper hexacyanoferrate (Cu-HCF) nanozyme with hyaluronic acid (HA) and further loading platinum (Pt) nanoparticles. This Cu-HCF-HA@Pt platform shows peroxidase-like and glutathione oxidase-like dual-enzyme catalytic activities and photothermal properties, enabling synergistic chemodynamic and photothermal tumor therapy. HA binds to the CD44 receptor, which is highly expressed on the exterior surface of tumor cells, endowing the nanoplatform with tumor specificity. Cu-HCF-HA@Pt catalyzes the decomposition of H2O2 to produce abundant hydroxyl radicals within tumor cells, increasing intracellular oxidative stress levels and inducing tumor cell apoptosis. Meanwhile, Cu-HCF-HA@Pt catalyzes the conversion of intracellular reduced glutathione (GSH) to oxidized glutathione, resulting in GSH exhaustion. The conversion of CuII to CuI in Cu-HCF via a Fenton-like reaction can improve the peroxidase-like property of Cu-HCF-HA@Pt. After the probe is targeted to the tumor site, irradiation by an 808 nm near-infrared laser causes local heating and brings about photothermal tumor apoptosis when reaching 45 °C. The prepared Cu-HCF-HA@Pt combines nanozyme-catalyzed therapy with photothermal therapy to induce apoptosis in tumor cells.

The application of nanoparticles based on ferroptosis in cancer therapy

Ferroptosis is a new form of non-apoptotic programmed cell death. Due to its effectiveness in cancer treatment, there are increasing studies on the application of nanoparticles based on ferroptosis in cancer therapy. In this paper, we present a summary of the latest progress in nanoparticles based on ferroptosis for effective tumor therapy. We also describe the combined treatment of ferroptosis with other therapies, including chemotherapy, radiotherapy, phototherapy, immunotherapy, and gene therapy. This summary of drug delivery systems based on ferroptosis aims to provide a basis and inspire opinions for researchers concentrating on exploring this field. Finally, we present some prospects and challenges for the application of nanotherapies to clinical treatment by promoting ferroptosis in cancer cells.

Multifunctional Carbon Dots for Biomedical Applications: Diagnosis, Therapy, and Theranostic

Designing suitable nanomaterials is an ideal strategy to enable early diagnosis and effective treatment of diseases. Carbon dots (CDs) are luminescent carbonaceous nanoparticles that have attracted considerable attention. Through facile synthesis, they process properties including tunable light emission, low toxicity, and light energy transformation, leading to diverse applications as optically functional materials in biomedical fields. Recently, their potentials have been further explored, such as enzyme-like activity and ability to promote osteogenic differentiation. Through refined synthesizing strategies carbon dots, a rich treasure trove for new discoveries, stand a chance to guide significant development in biomedical applications. In this review, the authors start with a brief introduction to CDs. By presenting mechanisms and examples, the authors focus on how they can be used in diagnosing and treating diseases, including bioimaging failure of tissues and cells, biosensing various pathogenic factors and biomarkers, tissue defect repair, anti-inflammation, antibacterial and antiviral, and novel oncology treatment. The introduction of the application of integrated diagnosis and treatment follows closely behind. Furthermore, the challenges and future directions of CDs are discussed. The authors hope this review will provide critical perspectives to inspire new discoveries on CDs and prompt their advances in biomedical applications.

Multi-Stimuli-Responsive and Cell Membrane Camouflaged Aggregation-Induced Emission Nanogels for Precise Chemo-photothermal Synergistic Therapy of Tumors

Targeted and controllable drug release at lesion sites with the aid of visual navigation in real-time is of great significance for precise theranostics of cancers. Benefiting from the marvelous features (e.g., bright emission and phototheranostic effects in aggregates) of aggregation-induced emission (AIE) materials, constructing AIE-based multifunctional nanocarriers that act as all-arounders to integrate multimodalities for precise theranostics is highly desirable. Here, an intelligent nanoplatform (P-TN-Dox@CM) with homologous targeting, controllable drug release, and in vivo dual-modal imaging for precise chemo-photothermal synergistic therapy is proposed. AIE photothermic agent (TN) and anticancer drug (Dox) are encapsulated in thermo-/pH-responsive nanogels (PNA), and the tumor cell membranes are camouflaged onto the surface of nanogels. Active targeting can be realized through homologous effects derived from source tumor cell membranes, which advantageously elevates the specific drug delivery to tumor sites. After being engulfed into tumor cells, the nanogels exhibit a burst drug release at low pH. The near-infrared (NIR) photoinduced local hyperthermia can activate severe cytotoxicity and further accelerate drug release, thus generating enhanced synergistic chemo-photothermal therapy to thoroughly eradicate tumors. Moreover, P-TN-Dox@CM nanogels could achieve NIR-fluorescence/photothermal dual-modal imaging to monitor the dynamic distribution of therapeutics in real-time. This work highlights the great potential of smart P-TN-Dox@CM nanogels as a versatile nanoplatform to integrate multimodalities for precise chemo-photothermal synergistic therapy in combating cancers.

Nano-drug delivery system targeting tumor microenvironment: A prospective strategy for melanoma treatment

Melanoma, the most aggressive form of cutaneous malignancy arising from melanocytes, is frequently characterized by metastasis. Despite considerable progress in melanoma therapies, patients with advanced-stage disease often have a poor prognosis due to the limited efficacy, off-target effects, and toxicity associated with conventional drugs. Nanotechnology has emerged as a promising approach to address these challenges with nanoparticles capable of delivering therapeutic agents specifically to the tumor microenvironment (TME). However, the clinical approval of nanomedicines for melanoma treatment remains limited, necessitating further research to develop nanoparticles with improved biocompatibility and precise targeting capabilities. This comprehensive review provides an overview of the current research on nano-drug delivery systems for melanoma treatment, focusing on liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, and inorganic nanoparticles. It discusses the potential of these nanoparticles for targeted drug delivery, as well as their ability to enhance the efficacy of conventional drugs while minimizing toxicity. Furthermore, this review emphasizes the significance of interdisciplinary collaboration between researchers from various fields to advance the development of nanomedicines. Overall, this review serves as a valuable resource for researchers and clinicians interested in the potential of nano-drug delivery systems for melanoma treatment and offers insights into future directions for research in this field.

SOD mineralized zeolitic imidazole framework-8 for the treatment of chemotherapy-related acute kidney injury

Acute kidney injury (AKI), a prevalent and fatal adverse event, seriously affects cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy. The most important pathological mechanism of AKI is oxidative stress from reactive oxygen species (ROS). Currently, ROS scavenging is a promising strategy to manage the risk of chemotherapy-induced AKI. Herein, we successfully synthesized SOD@ZIF-8 nanoparticles by biomimetic mineralization, which were taken up by cells and could improve cell viability by limiting oxidative stress damage, as found in in vitro studies. Moreover, SOD@ZIF-8 nanoparticles exhibit broad-spectrum antioxidant properties in addition to significant renal accumulation in AKI mice, preventing clinically related cisplatin-induced AKI in murine models. AKI alleviation in the model was validated by measuring blood serum, staining kidney tissue, and related biomarkers. SOD@ZIF-8 nanoparticle therapeutic efficiency exceeds NAC, a small molecular antioxidant functioning through free radical scavenging. The results suggest SOD@ZIF-8 nanoparticles as a potential therapeutic option for AKI and other ROS-related disorders.

The Oxidation and Functionalization of Multi-walled Carbon Nanotubes with Fluorescein-isothiocyanate Improve Germination and Early Development of Avena sativa

The use of multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) in plant systems has been extensively studied in the last decade, however, the structural modification of these nanoparticles changes the effects when interacting with biological systems, so this work gives us more information on the effects of the oxidation and functionalization of the MWCNTs, where these nanoparticles increased the speed of germination as well as the total germination and in the same way improved the biomass of the plant.

Advances of medical nanorobots for future cancer treatments

Early detection and diagnosis of many cancers is very challenging. Late stage detection of a cancer always leads to high mortality rates. It is imperative to develop novel and more sensitive and effective diagnosis and therapeutic methods for cancer treatments. The development of new cancer treatments has become a crucial aspect of medical advancements. Nanobots, as one of the most promising applications of nanomedicines, are at the forefront of multidisciplinary research. With the progress of nanotechnology, nanobots enable the assembly and deployment of functional molecular/nanosized machines and are increasingly being utilized in cancer diagnosis and therapeutic treatment. In recent years, various practical applications of nanobots for cancer treatments have transitioned from theory to practice, from in vitro experiments to in vivo applications. In this paper, we review and analyze the recent advancements of nanobots in cancer treatments, with a particular emphasis on their key fundamental features and their applications in drug delivery, tumor sensing and diagnosis, targeted therapy, minimally invasive surgery, and other comprehensive treatments. At the same time, we discuss the challenges and the potential research opportunities for nanobots in revolutionizing cancer treatments. In the future, medical nanobots are expected to become more sophisticated and capable of performing multiple medical functions and tasks, ultimately becoming true nanosubmarines in the bloodstream.

Target Embolization Combined with Multimodal Thermal Ablation for Solid Tumors by Smart Poly(amino acid)s Nanocomposites

Noninterventional embolization does not require the use of a catheter, and the treatment of solid tumors in combination with thermal ablation can avoid some of the risks of the surgical procedure. Therefore, we developed an efficient tumor microenvironment-gelled nanocomposites with poly [(l-glutamic acid-ran-l-tyrosine)-b-l-serine-b-l-cysteine] (PGTSCs) coated-nanoparticles (Fe₃O₄&Au@PGTSCs), from which the prepared PGTSCs were given possession of pH response to an acidic tumor microenvironment. Fe₃O₄&Au@PGTSC in noninterventional embolization treatment not only achieved the smart targeted medicine delivery but also meshed with noninvasive multimodal thermal ablation therapy and multimodal imaging of solid tumors via intravenous injection. It was worth noting that the results of animal experiments in vivo demonstrated that Fe₃O₄&Au@PGTSCs have specific tumor accumulation and embolization and thermal ablation effects; at 10 days postinjection, only scars were found at the tumor site. After 20 days, the tumors of model mice completely disappeared. This device is easier to treat solid tumors based on the slightly acidic tumor environment.

Activatable fluorescent probes for real-time imaging-guided tumor therapy

Surgery and drug therapy are the two principal options for cancer treatment. However, their clinical benefits are hindered by the difficulty of accurate location of the tumors and timely monitoring of the treatment efficacy of drugs, respectively. Rapid development of imaging techniques provides promising tools to address these challenges. Compared with conventional imaging techniques such as magnetic resonance imaging and computed tomography etc., fluorescence imaging exhibits high spatial resolution, real-time imaging capability, and relatively low costs devices. The advancements in fluorescent probes further accelerate the implementation of fluorescence imaging in tumor diagnosis and treatment monitoring. In particular, the emergence of site-specifically activatable fluorescent probes fits the demands of tumor delineation and real-time feedback of the treatment efficacy. A variety of small molecule probes or nanoparticle-based probes have been developed and explored for the above-mentioned applications. This review will discuss recent advances in fluorescent probes with a special focus on activatable nanoprobes and highlight the potential implementation of activatable nanoprobes in fluorescence imaging-guided surgery as well as imaging-guided drug therapy.

Recent advancements in design of nucleic acid nanocarriers for controlled drug delivery

Research of nanoscale nucleic acid carriers has garnered attention in recent years due to their distinctive and controllable properties. However, current knowledge is limited in how we can efficiently utilize these systems for clinical applications. Several researchers have pioneered new and innovative nanocarrier drug delivery systems, but understanding physiochemical properties and behavior in vivo is vital to implementing them as clinical drug delivery platforms. In this review, we outline the most significant innovations in the synthesis, physical properties, and utilization of nucleic acid nanocarriers in the past 5 years, addressing the crucial properties which improve nanocarrier characteristics, delivery, and drug release. The challenges of controlling the transport of nucleic acid nanocarriers and therapeutic release for biological applications are outlined. Barriers which inhibit effective transport into tissue are discussed with emphasis on the modifications needed to overcome such obstacles. The novel strategies discussed in this work summarize the pivotal features of modern nucleic nanocarriers and postulate where future developments could revolutionize the translation of these tools into a clinical setting.

Emerging roles of m6A RNA modification in cancer therapeutic resistance

Marvelous advancements have been made in cancer therapies to improve clinical outcomes over the years. However, therapeutic resistance has always been a major difficulty in cancer therapy, with extremely complicated mechanisms remain elusive. N6-methyladenosine (m6A) RNA modification, a hotspot in epigenetics, has gained growing attention as a potential determinant of therapeutic resistance. As the most prevalent RNA modification, m6A is involved in every links of RNA metabolism, including RNA splicing, nuclear export, translation and stability. Three kinds of regulators, "writer" (methyltransferase), "eraser" (demethylase) and "reader" (m6A binding proteins), together orchestrate the dynamic and reversible process of m6A modification. Herein, we primarily reviewed the regulatory mechanisms of m6A in therapeutic resistance, including chemotherapy, targeted therapy, radiotherapy and immunotherapy. Then we discussed the clinical potential of m6A modification to overcome resistance and optimize cancer therapy. Additionally, we proposed existing problems in current research and prospects for future research.

Improving anti-tumor efficacy of low-dose Vincristine in rhabdomyosarcoma via the combination therapy with FOXM1 inhibitor RCM1

Rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) is a highly metastatic soft-tissue sarcoma that often develops resistance to current therapies, including vincristine. Since the existing treatments have not significantly improved survival, there is a critical need for new therapeutic approaches for RMS patients. FOXM1, a known oncogene, is highly expressed in RMS, and is associated with the worst prognosis in RMS patients. In the present study, we found that the combination treatment with specific FOXM1 inhibitor RCM1 and low doses of vincristine is more effective in increasing apoptosis and decreasing RMS cell proliferation in vitro compared to single drugs alone. Since RCM1 is highly hydrophobic, we developed innovative nanoparticle delivery system containing poly-beta-amino-esters and folic acid (NP^FA), which efficiently delivers RCM1 to mouse RMS tumors in vivo. The combination of low doses of vincristine together with intravenous administration of NP^FA nanoparticles containing RCM1 effectively reduced RMS tumor volumes, increased tumor cell death and decreased tumor cell proliferation in RMS tumors compared to RCM1 or vincristine alone. The combination therapy was non-toxic as demonstrated by liver metabolic panels using peripheral blood serum. Using RNA-seq of dissected RMS tumors, we identified Chac1 as a uniquely downregulated gene after the combination treatment. Knockdown of Chac1 in RMS cells in vitro recapitulated the effects of the combination therapy. Altogether, combination treatment with low doses of vincristine and nanoparticle delivery of FOXM1 inhibitor RCM1 in a pre-clinical model of RMS has superior anti-tumor effects and decreases CHAC1 while reducing vincristine toxicity.

Effect of Dipole Interactions on Blocking Temperature and Relaxation Dynamics of Superparamagnetic Iron-Oxide (Fe3O4) Nanoparticle Systems

The effects of dipole interactions on magnetic nanoparticle magnetization and relaxation dynamics were investigated using five nanoparticle (NP) systems with different surfactants, carrier liquids, size distributions, inter-particle spacing, and NP confinement. Dipole interactions were found to play a crucial role in modifying the blocking temperature behavior of the superparamagnetic nanoparticles, where stronger interactions were found to increase the blocking temperatures. Consequently, the blocking temperature of a densely packed nanoparticle system with stronger dipolar interactions was found to be substantially higher than those of the discrete nanoparticle systems. The frequencies of the dominant relaxation mechanisms were determined by magnetic susceptibility measurements in the frequency range of 100 Hz-7 GHz. The loss mechanisms were identified in terms of Brownian relaxation (1 kHz-10 kHz) and gyromagnetic resonance of Fe₃O₄ (~1.12 GHz). It was observed that the microwave absorption of the Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles depend on the local environment surrounding the NPs, as well as the long-range dipole-dipole interactions. These significant findings will be profoundly important in magnetic hyperthermia medical therapeutics and energy applications.

Harnessing Engineered Immune Cells and Bacteria as Drug Carriers for Cancer Immunotherapy

Immunotherapy continues to be in the spotlight of oncology therapy research in the past few years and has been proven to be a promising option to modulate one's innate and adaptive immune systems for cancer treatment. However, the poor delivery efficiency of immune agents, potential off-target toxicity, and nonimmunogenic tumors significantly limit its effectiveness and extensive application. Recently, emerging biomaterial-based drug carriers, including but not limited to immune cells and bacteria, are expected to be potential candidates to break the dilemma of immunotherapy, with their excellent natures of intrinsic tumor tropism and immunomodulatory activity. More than that, the tiny vesicles and physiological components derived from them have similar functions with their source cells due to the inheritance of various surface signal molecules and proteins. Herein, we presented representative examples about the latest advances of biomaterial-based delivery systems employed in cancer immunotherapy, including immune cells, bacteria, and their derivatives. Simultaneously, opportunities and challenges of immune cells and bacteria-based carriers are discussed to provide reference for their future application in cancer immunotherapy.

RGD_PLGA Nanoparticles with Docetaxel: A Route for Improving Drug Efficiency and Reducing Toxicity in Breast Cancer Treatment

Breast cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related death in women. Although many therapeutic approaches are available, systemic chemotherapy remains the primary choice, especially for triple-negative and advanced breast cancers. Unfortunately, systemic chemotherapy causes serious side effects and requires high doses to achieve an effective concentration in the tumor. Thus, the use of nanosystems for drug delivery may overcome these limitations. Herein, we formulated Poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles (PLGA-NPs) containing Docetaxel, a fluorescent probe, and a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) probe. The cyclic RGD tripeptide was linked to the PLGA surface to actively target α_vβ₃ integrins, which are overexpressed in breast cancer. PLGA-NPs were characterized using dynamic light scattering, fast field-cycling ¹H-relaxometry, and ¹H-nuclear magnetic resonance. Their therapeutic effects were assessed both in vitro in triple-negative and HER2+ breast cancer cells, and in vivo in murine models. In vivo MRI and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry of excised tumors revealed a stronger accumulation of PLGA-NPs in the RGD_PLGA group. Targeted PLGAs have improved therapeutic efficacy and strongly reduced cardiac side effects compared to free Docetaxel. In conclusion, RGD-PLGA is a promising system for breast cancer treatment, with positive outcome in terms of therapeutic efficiency and reduction in side effects.

Targeting cancer stem cells with polymer nanoparticles for gastrointestinal cancer treatment

Nanomaterials are developing rapidly in the medical field, bringing new hope for treating various refractory diseases. Among them, polymer nanomaterials, with their excellent properties, have been used to treat various diseases, such as malignant tumors, diabetes, and nervous system diseases. Gastrointestinal cancer is among the cancers with the highest morbidity and mortality worldwide. Cancer stem cells are believed to play an important role in the occurrence and development of tumors. This article summarizes the characteristics of gastrointestinal cancer stem cells and reviews the latest research progress in treating gastrointestinal malignant tumors using polymer nanoparticles to target cancer stem cells. In addition, the review article highlights the potential of polymer nanoparticles in targeting gastrointestinal cancer stem cells.

Natural Products-Based Nanoformulations: A New Approach Targeting CSCs to Cancer Therapy

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) lead to the occurrence and progression of cancer due to their strong tumorigenic, self-renewal, and multidirectional differentiation abilities. Existing cancer treatment methods cannot effectively kill or inhibit CSCs but instead enrich them and produce stronger proliferation, invasion, and metastasis capabilities, resulting in cancer recurrence and treatment resistance, which has become a difficult problem in clinical treatment. Therefore, targeting CSCs may be the most promising approach for comprehensive cancer therapy in the future. A variety of natural products (NP) have significant antitumor effects and have been identified to target and inhibit CSCs. However, pharmacokinetic defects and off-target effects have greatly hindered their clinical translation. NP-based nanoformulations (NPNs) have tremendous potential to overcome the disadvantages of NP against CSCs through site-specific delivery and by improving their pharmacokinetic parameters. In this review, we summarize the recent progress of NPNs targeting CSCs in cancer therapy, looking forward to transforming preclinical research results into clinical applications and bringing new prospects for cancer treatment.

In Vitro Binding and Release Mechanisms of Doxorubicin from Nanoclays

Nanoclays have been developed as drug delivery systems, but their mechanisms of DOX delivery are unclear. Herein, unmodified nanoclays (halloysite, kaolinite, montmorillonite) were comprehensively studied on their in vitro binding and release mechanisms of DOX from both experimental and theoretical aspects. These nanoclays with high loading capacity (>50%) and encapsulation efficiency capacity (>90%) of DOX are attributed to the exposed hydroxyl groups and the Lewis base sites on the surfaces. Density functional theory calculations also confirmed that DOX is preferentially adsorbed on the Al-OH surfaces while adsorption on Si-O surfaces is limited. Besides this, the pH-responsive profiles of DOX release from nanoclays are related to the protonation of negatively charged nanoclays in weakly acidic solutions that makes it easier to dissociate with positively charged DOX. The in-depth mechanistic method in this work is widely applicable and demonstrates that nanoclays can be used as efficient nanocarriers for more biomedical applications.

Recent Developments in Heteroatom/Metal-Doped Carbon Dot-Based Image-Guided Photodynamic Therapy for Cancer

Carbon nanodots (CNDs) are advanced nanomaterials with a size of 2-10 nm and are considered zero-dimensional carbonaceous materials. CNDs have received great attention in the area of cancer theranostics. The majority of review articles have shown the improvement of CNDs for use in cancer therapy and bioimaging applications. However, there is a minimal number of consolidated studies on the currently developed doped CNDs that are used in various ways in cancer therapies. Hence, in this review, we discuss the current developments in different types of heteroatom elements/metal ion-doped CNDs along with their preparations, physicochemical and biological properties, multimodal-imaging, and emerging applications in image-guided photodynamic therapies for cancer.

Advances in biomaterials for the treatment of retinoblastoma

Retinoblastoma is the most common primary intraocular malignancy in children. Although traditional chemotherapy has shown some success in retinoblastoma management, there are several shortcomings to this approach, including inadequate pharmacokinetic parameters, multidrug resistance, low therapeutic efficiency, nonspecific targeting, and the need for adjuvant therapy, among others. The revolutionary developments in biomaterials for drug delivery have enabled breakthroughs in cancer management. Today, biomaterials are playing a crucial role in developing more efficacious retinoblastoma treatments. The key goal in the evolution of drug delivery biomaterials for retinoblastoma therapy is to resolve delivery-associated obstacles and lower nonlocal exposure while ameliorating certain adverse effects. In this review, we will first delve into the historical perspective of retinoblastoma with a focus on the classical treatments currently used in clinics to enhance patients' quality of life and survival rate. As we move along, we will discuss biomaterials for drug delivery applications. Various aspects of biomaterials for drug delivery will be dissected, including their features and recent advances. In accordance with the current advances in biomaterials, we will deliver a synopsis on the novel chemotherapeutic drug delivery strategies and evaluate these approaches to gain new insights into retinoblastoma treatment.

A Biodegradable Iridium(III) Coordination Polymer for Enhanced Two-Photon Photodynamic Therapy Using an Apoptosis-Ferroptosis Hybrid Pathway

The clinical application of photodynamic therapy is hindered by the high glutathione concentration, poor cancer-targeting properties, poor drug loading into delivery systems, and an inefficient activation of the cell death machinery in cancer cells. To overcome these limitations, herein, the formulation of a promising Ir^III complex into a biodegradable coordination polymer (IrS NPs) is presented. The nanoparticles were found to remain stable under physiological conditions but deplete glutathione and disintegrate into the monomeric metal complexes in the tumor microenvironment, causing an enhanced therapeutic effect. The nanoparticles were found to selectively accumulate in the mitochondria where these trigger cell death by hybrid apoptosis and ferroptosis pathways through the photoinduced production of singlet oxygen and superoxide anion radicals. This study presents the first example of a coordination polymer that can efficiently cause cancer cell death by apoptosis and ferroptosis upon irradiation, providing an innovative approach for cancer therapy.