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Stocker M, O’Sullivan EP, Palme R, Millesi E, Sonnweber R. Measurement of Salivary Cortisol in Two New World Primate Species. BIOLOGY 2023; 12:1181. [PMID: 37759581 PMCID: PMC10525777 DOI: 10.3390/biology12091181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2023] [Revised: 08/10/2023] [Accepted: 08/28/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023]
Abstract
Glucocorticoids (GCs) are mammalian steroid hormones involved in a variety of physiological processes, including metabolism, the immune response, and cardiovascular functions. Due to their link to the physiological stress response, GC measurement is a valuable tool for conservation and welfare assessment in animal populations. GC levels can be measured from different matrices, such as urine and feces. Moreover, especially in captive settings, measuring GCs from saliva samples proved particularly useful as those samples can be collected non-invasively and easily from trained animals. Salivary GC levels can be measured using a variety of analytical methods, such as enzyme immunoassays. However, it is crucial to validate the analytical method for each specific application and species when using a new matrix. Using high-pressure liquid chromatography and a cortisol enzyme immunoassay, we show that the main glucocorticoids secreted in the saliva of squirrel monkeys and brown capuchin monkeys are cortisol and cortisone. Our biological validation found the expected salivary cortisol level to decline throughout the day. Our findings support the reliability of salivary cortisol measurements and their potential to be used as a valid tool in research and welfare assessment for these non-human primates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Stocker
- Animal Science Department, Biomedical Primate Research Centre, 2288 GJ Rijswijk, The Netherlands
- Department of Behavioral and Cognitive Biology, University of Vienna, 1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Eoin P. O’Sullivan
- School of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9JP, UK
| | - Rupert Palme
- Unit of Physiology, Pathophysiology and Experimental Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Veterinary Medicine, 1210 Vienna, Austria
| | - Eva Millesi
- Department of Behavioral and Cognitive Biology, University of Vienna, 1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Ruth Sonnweber
- Department of Behavioral and Cognitive Biology, University of Vienna, 1030 Vienna, Austria
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2
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Starnes AN, Jones JR. Inputs and Outputs of the Mammalian Circadian Clock. BIOLOGY 2023; 12:biology12040508. [PMID: 37106709 PMCID: PMC10136320 DOI: 10.3390/biology12040508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2023] [Revised: 03/16/2023] [Accepted: 03/24/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023]
Abstract
Circadian rhythms in mammals are coordinated by the central circadian pacemaker, the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). Light and other environmental inputs change the timing of the SCN neural network oscillator, which, in turn, sends output signals that entrain daily behavioral and physiological rhythms. While much is known about the molecular, neuronal, and network properties of the SCN itself, the circuits linking the outside world to the SCN and the SCN to rhythmic outputs are understudied. In this article, we review our current understanding of the synaptic and non-synaptic inputs onto and outputs from the SCN. We propose that a more complete description of SCN connectivity is needed to better explain how rhythms in nearly all behaviors and physiological processes are generated and to determine how, mechanistically, these rhythms are disrupted by disease or lifestyle.
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3
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Angelousi A, Nasiri-Ansari N, Karapanagioti A, Kyriakopoulos G, Aggeli C, Zografos G, Choreftaki T, Parianos C, Kounadi T, Alexandraki K, Randeva HS, Kaltsas G, Papavassiliou AG, Kassi E. Expression of clock-related genes in benign and malignant adrenal tumors. Endocrine 2020; 68:650-659. [PMID: 32147772 DOI: 10.1007/s12020-020-02246-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2019] [Accepted: 02/26/2020] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Although the effect of the central clock system on adrenal function has been extensively studied, the role of the peripheral clock system in adrenal tumorigenesis remains largely unexplored. In this study we investigated the expression of clock-related genes in normal adrenocortical tissue and adrenocortical tumors. Twenty-seven fresh frozen human adrenal tissues including 13 cortisol secreting adenomas (CSA), seven aldosterone producing adenomas (APA), and seven adrenocortical carcinomas (ACC) were collected. CLOCK, BMAL1, PER1, CRY1, Rev-ERB, and RORα mRNA and protein expression were determined by qPCR and immunoblotting in pathological tissues and compared with the adjacent normal adrenal tissues. A significant downregulation of PER1, CRY1, and Rev-ERB compared with their normal tissue was demonstrated in CSA. All clock-related genes were overexpressed in APA compared with their normal tissue, albeit not significantly. A significant upregulation of CRY1 and PER1 and downregulation of BMAL1, RORα, and Rev-ERB compared with normal adrenal tissue was observed in ACC. BMAL1 and PER1 were significantly downregulated in APA compared with CSA. CLOCK, CRY1, and PER1 were upregulated, whereas BMAL1, RORα, and Rev-ERB were downregulated in ACC compared with CSA. Our study demonstrated the expression of CLOCK, BMAL1, PER1, CRY1, Rev-ERB, and RORα in normal and pathological human adrenal tissues. Adrenal tumors exhibited altered expression of these genes compared with normal tissue, with specific differences between benign and malignant lesions and between benign tumors arising from glomerulosa vs fasciculata zone. Further studies should clarify whether these alterations could be implicated in adrenocortical tumorigenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Angelousi
- 1st Department of Internal Medicine, Laiko University Hospital, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Narjes Nasiri-Ansari
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Mikras Asias 75, Goudi, 11527, Athens, Greece
| | - Angeliki Karapanagioti
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Mikras Asias 75, Goudi, 11527, Athens, Greece
| | - Georgios Kyriakopoulos
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Mikras Asias 75, Goudi, 11527, Athens, Greece
| | - Chrysanthi Aggeli
- 3rd Department of Surgery, General Hospital of Athens "G. Gennimatas", Athens, Greece
| | - Giorgos Zografos
- 3rd Department of Surgery, General Hospital of Athens "G. Gennimatas", Athens, Greece
| | - Theodosia Choreftaki
- Department of Pathology, General Hospital of Athens "G. Gennimatas", Athens, Greece
| | - Christos Parianos
- 3rd Department of Surgery, General Hospital of Athens "G. Gennimatas", Athens, Greece
| | - Theodora Kounadi
- Department of Endocrinology and Diabetes Center, Athens General Hospital "G. Gennimatas", Athens, Greece
| | - Krystallenia Alexandraki
- 1st Department of Propaedeutic Internal Medicine, Laiko University Hospital, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Harpal S Randeva
- Division of Translational and Experimental Medicine, Metabolic and Vascular Health, Warwick Medical School, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK
| | - Gregory Kaltsas
- 1st Department of Propaedeutic Internal Medicine, Laiko University Hospital, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Athanasios G Papavassiliou
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Mikras Asias 75, Goudi, 11527, Athens, Greece
| | - Eva Kassi
- 1st Department of Internal Medicine, Laiko University Hospital, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece.
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Mikras Asias 75, Goudi, 11527, Athens, Greece.
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4
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Yan L, Smale L, Nunez AA. Circadian and photic modulation of daily rhythms in diurnal mammals. Eur J Neurosci 2020; 51:551-566. [PMID: 30269362 PMCID: PMC6441382 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.14172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2018] [Revised: 08/02/2018] [Accepted: 08/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The temporal niche that an animal occupies includes a coordinated suite of behavioral and physiological processes that set diurnal and nocturnal animals apart. The daily rhythms of the two chronotypes are regulated by both the circadian system and direct responses to light, a process called masking. Here we review the literature on circadian regulations and masking responses in diurnal mammals, focusing on our work using the diurnal Nile grass rat (Arvicanthis niloticus) and comparing our findings with those derived from other diurnal and nocturnal models. There are certainly similarities between the circadian systems of diurnal and nocturnal mammals, especially in the phase and functioning of the principal circadian oscillator within the hypothalamic suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). However, the downstream pathways, direct or indirect from the SCN, lead to drastic differences in the phase of extra-SCN oscillators, with most showing a complete reversal from the phase seen in nocturnal species. This reversal, however, is not universal and in some cases the phases of extra-SCN oscillators are only a few hours apart between diurnal and nocturnal species. The behavioral masking responses in general are opposite between diurnal and nocturnal species, and are matched by differential responses to light and dark in several retinorecipient sites in their brain. The available anatomical and functional data suggest that diurnal brains are not simply a phase-reversed version of nocturnal ones, and work with diurnal models contribute significantly to a better understanding of the circadian and photic modulation of daily rhythms in our own diurnal species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lily Yan
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, United States
| | - Laura Smale
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, United States
| | - Antonio A. Nunez
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, United States
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Desantis LM, Bowman J, Vijayan MM, Burness G. Seasonal changes in acute stressor-mediated plasma glucocorticoid regulation in New World flying squirrels. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2018; 266:78-86. [PMID: 29763585 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2018.04.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2017] [Revised: 04/13/2018] [Accepted: 04/25/2018] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
Southern flying squirrels have higher circulating cortisol levels than most vertebrates. However, regulation of tissue exposure to cortisol by the hormone's carrier protein, corticosteroid-binding globulin (CBG), appears to be altered due to lower-than-expected CBG expression levels, and a reduced affinity for cortisol. To assess the capacity of flying squirrels to regulate acute stress-mediated cortisol levels, we used the dexamethasone (DEX) suppression test followed by the adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulation test in both the breeding and non-breeding seasons, and quantified resultant changes in plasma cortisol and relative CBG levels. Regulation of cortisol via negative feedback, and the acute stress response appeared to function as they do in other vertebrates during the breeding season, but response to DEX in the non-breeding season showed that the sensitivity of the negative feedback mechanism changed across seasons. The relatively high concentrations of DEX required to induce negative feedback suggests that southern flying squirrels have a reduced sensitivity to cortisol compared with other vertebrates, and that high circulating cortisol levels may be required to compensate for low target tissue responsiveness in this species. Cortisol, but not CBG levels, were higher during the non-breeding than breeding season, and females had higher cortisol and CBG levels than males. Our data suggest that flying squirrel cortisol levels are regulated by negative feedback at a higher set point than in related species. Seasonal changes in cortisol levels, target tissue sensitivity to DEX, and in the capacity to respond to stressors appear to be part of the underlying physiology of southern flying squirrels, and may be required to maximize fitness in the face of tradeoffs between survival and reproduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lanna M Desantis
- Environmental & Life Sciences Graduate Program, Trent University, Peterborough, ON K9J 0G2, Canada.
| | - Jeff Bowman
- Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry, Trent University, DNA Building, Peterborough, ON K9J 0G2, Canada
| | - Mathilakath M Vijayan
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - Gary Burness
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, ON K9L 0G2, Canada
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Developmental Programming of Capuchin Monkey Adrenal Dysfunction by Gestational Chronodisruption. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2018; 2018:9183053. [PMID: 30186871 PMCID: PMC6109991 DOI: 10.1155/2018/9183053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2018] [Revised: 06/14/2018] [Accepted: 08/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
In the capuchin monkey (Cebus apella), a new-world nonhuman primate, maternal exposure to constant light during last third of gestation induces precocious maturation of the fetal adrenal and increased plasma cortisol in the newborn. Here, we further explored the effects of this challenge on the developmental programming of adrenal function in newborn and infant capuchin monkeys. We measured (i) plasma dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate (DHAS) and cortisol response to ACTH in infants with suppressed endogenous ACTH, (ii) plasma DHAS and cortisol response to ACTH in vitro, and (iii) adrenal weight and expression level of key factors in steroid synthesis (StAR and 3β-HSD). In one-month-old infants from mothers subjected to constant light, plasma levels of cortisol and cortisol response to ACTH were twofold higher, whereas plasma levels of DHAS and DHAS response to ACTH were markedly reduced, compared to control conditions. At 10 months of age, DHAS levels were still lower but closer to control animals, whereas cortisol response to ACTH was similar in both experimental groups. A compensatory response was detected at the adrenal level, consisting of a 30% increase in adrenal weight and about 50% reduction of both StAR and 3β-HSD mRNA and protein expression and the magnitude of DHAS and cortisol response to ACTH in vitro. Hence, at birth and at 10 months of age, there were differential effects in DHAS, cortisol production, and their response to ACTH. However, by 10 months of age, these subsided, leading to a normal cortisol response to ACTH. These compensatory mechanisms may help to overcome the adrenal alterations induced during pregnancy to restore normal cortisol concentrations in the growing infant.
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7
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Validation of an Enzyme Immunoassay for Measuring Fecal Cortisol Metabolites of Bearded (Sapajus libidinosus) and Black (Sapajus nigritus) Capuchins. INT J PRIMATOL 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s10764-017-9993-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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8
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Sollars PJ, Weiser MJ, Kudwa AE, Bramley JR, Ogilvie MD, Spencer RL, Handa RJ, Pickard GE. Altered entrainment to the day/night cycle attenuates the daily rise in circulating corticosterone in the mouse. PLoS One 2014; 9:e111944. [PMID: 25365210 PMCID: PMC4218825 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0111944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2014] [Accepted: 10/09/2014] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) is a circadian oscillator entrained to the day/night cycle via input from the retina. Serotonin (5-HT) afferents to the SCN modulate retinal signals via activation of 5-HT1B receptors, decreasing responsiveness to light. Consequently, 5-HT1B receptor knockout (KO) mice entrain to the day/night cycle with delayed activity onsets. Since circulating corticosterone levels exhibit a robust daily rhythm peaking around activity onset, we asked whether delayed entrainment of activity onsets affects rhythmic corticosterone secretion. Wheel-running activity and plasma corticosterone were monitored in mice housed under several different lighting regimens. Both duration of the light:dark cycle (T cycle) and the duration of light within that cycle was altered. 5-HT1B KO mice that entrained to a 9.5L:13.5D (short day in a T = 23 h) cycle with activity onsets delayed more than 4 h after light offset exhibited a corticosterone rhythm in phase with activity rhythms but reduced 50% in amplitude compared to animals that initiated daily activity <4 h after light offset. Wild type mice in 8L:14D (short day in a T = 22 h) conditions with highly delayed activity onsets also exhibited a 50% reduction in peak plasma corticosterone levels. Exogenous adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) stimulation in animals exhibiting highly delayed entrainment suggested that the endogenous rhythm of adrenal responsiveness to ACTH remained aligned with SCN-driven behavioral activity. Circadian clock gene expression in the adrenal cortex of these same animals suggested that the adrenal circadian clock was also aligned with SCN-driven behavior. Under T cycles <24 h, altered circadian entrainment to short day (winter-like) conditions, manifest as long delays in activity onset after light offset, severely reduces the amplitude of the diurnal rhythm of plasma corticosterone. Such a pronounced reduction in the glucocorticoid rhythm may alter rhythmic gene expression in the central nervous system and in peripheral organs contributing to an array of potential pathophysiologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia J. Sollars
- Neuroscience Division, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, 80523, United States of America
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska, 68583, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Michael J. Weiser
- Neuroscience Division, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, 80523, United States of America
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, 80309, United States of America
| | - Andrea E. Kudwa
- Neuroscience Division, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, 80523, United States of America
| | - Jayne R. Bramley
- Neuroscience Division, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, 80523, United States of America
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska, 68583, United States of America
| | - Malcolm D. Ogilvie
- Neuroscience Division, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, 80523, United States of America
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska, 68583, United States of America
| | - Robert L. Spencer
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, 80309, United States of America
| | - Robert J. Handa
- Neuroscience Division, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, 80523, United States of America
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Arizona College of Medicine, Phoenix, Arizona, 85004, United States of America
| | - Gary E. Pickard
- Neuroscience Division, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, 80523, United States of America
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska, 68583, United States of America
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van de Werken M, Booij SH, van der Zwan JE, Simons MJP, Gordijn MCM, Beersma DGM. The biological clock modulates the human cortisol response in a multiplicative fashion. Chronobiol Int 2013; 31:572-80. [DOI: 10.3109/07420528.2013.868472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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10
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Rodas-Martínez AZ, Canales D, Brousset DM, Swanson WF, Romano MC. Assessment of adrenocortical and gonadal hormones in male spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi) following capture, restraint and anesthesia. Zoo Biol 2013; 32:641-7. [DOI: 10.1002/zoo.21101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2013] [Revised: 08/28/2013] [Accepted: 09/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alba Zulema Rodas-Martínez
- Departamento de Fisiología, Biofísica y Neurociencias; Centro de Investigación y Estudios Avanzados del I. P. N.; Mexico D.F. México
- Departamento de Etología; Fauna Silvestre y Animales de Laboratorio de la Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia de la UNAM; Mexico D.F. México
| | | | - Dulce María Brousset
- Departamento de Etología; Fauna Silvestre y Animales de Laboratorio de la Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia de la UNAM; Mexico D.F. México
| | - William F. Swanson
- Center or Conservation and Research of Endangered Wildlife; Cincinnati Zoo and Botanical Garden; Cincinnati Ohio USA
| | - Marta C. Romano
- Departamento de Fisiología, Biofísica y Neurociencias; Centro de Investigación y Estudios Avanzados del I. P. N.; Mexico D.F. México
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Behavior and adrenal activity in a group of zoo golden snub-nosed monkeys, Rhinopithecus roxellana, following social structure change. CHINESE SCIENCE BULLETIN-CHINESE 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s11434-012-5651-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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12
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Serón-Ferré M, Forcelledo ML, Torres-Farfan C, Valenzuela FJ, Rojas A, Vergara M, Rojas-Garcia PP, Recabarren MP, Valenzuela GJ. Impact of chronodisruption during primate pregnancy on the maternal and newborn temperature rhythms. PLoS One 2013; 8:e57710. [PMID: 23469055 PMCID: PMC3585206 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0057710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2012] [Accepted: 01/24/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Disruption of the maternal environment during pregnancy is a key contributor to offspring diseases that develop in adult life. To explore the impact of chronodisruption during pregnancy in primates, we exposed pregnant capuchin monkeys to constant light (eliminating the maternal melatonin rhythm) from the last third of gestation to term. Maternal temperature and activity circadian rhythms were assessed as well as the newborn temperature rhythm. Additionally we studied the effect of daily maternal melatonin replacement during pregnancy on these rhythms. Ten pregnant capuchin monkeys were exposed to constant light from 60% of gestation to term. Five received a daily oral dose of melatonin (250 µg kg/body weight) at 1800 h (LL+Mel) and the other five a placebo (LL). Six additional pregnant females were maintained in a 14∶10 light:dark cycles and their newborns were used as controls (LD). Rhythms were recorded 96 h before delivery in the mother and at 4-6 days of age in the newborn. Exposure to constant light had no effect on the maternal body temperature rhythm however it delayed the acrophase of the activity rhythm. Neither rhythm was affected by melatonin replacement. In contrast, maternal exposure to constant light affected the newborn body temperature rhythm. This rhythm was entrained in control newborns whereas LL newborns showed a random distribution of the acrophases over 24-h. In addition, mean temperature was decreased (34.0±0.6 vs 36.1±0.2°C, in LL and control, respectively P<0.05). Maternal melatonin replacement during pregnancy re-synchronized the acrophases and restored mean temperature to the values in control newborns. Our findings demonstrate that prenatal melatonin is a Zeitgeber for the newborn temperature rhythm and supports normal body temperature maintenance. Altogether these prenatal melatonin effects highlight the physiological importance of the maternal melatonin rhythm during pregnancy for the newborn primate.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Serón-Ferré
- Programa de Fisiopatología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile.
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Social rank, chronic ethanol self-administration, and diurnal pituitary-adrenal activity in cynomolgus monkeys. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2012; 224:133-43. [PMID: 22526537 PMCID: PMC3469782 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-012-2707-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2011] [Accepted: 03/24/2012] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Dominance hierarchies affect ethanol self-administration, with greater intake among subordinate animals compared to dominant animals. Excessive ethanol intake disrupts circadian rhythms. Diurnal rhythms of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis have not been characterized in the context of ethanol self-administration with regard to social rank. OBJECTIVE This study aimed to determine whether diurnal pituitary-adrenal hormonal rhythms account for differences between social ranks in ethanol self-administration or are differentially affected by ethanol self-administration between social ranks. METHODS During alternating individual (n = 11-12) and social (n = 3 groups) housing of male cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis), diurnal measures of cortisol and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) were obtained from plasma samples three times per week. Social rank was determined, ethanol (4 %, w/v) self-administration was induced, and then the monkeys were allowed a choice of water or ethanol for 22 h/day for 49 weeks. RESULTS For all social ranks, plasma ACTH was elevated during social housing, but cortisol was stable, although greater among dominant monkeys. Ethanol self-administration blunted the effect of social housing, cortisol, and the diurnal rhythm for both hormones, regardless of daily ethanol intake (1.2-4.2 g/kg/day). Peak ACTH and cortisol were more likely to be observed in the morning during ethanol access. Ethanol, not vehicle, intake was lower during social housing across social ranks. Only dominant monkeys showed significantly lower blood-ethanol concentration during social housing. CONCLUSIONS There was a low threshold for disruption of diurnal pituitary rhythms by ethanol drinking, but sustained adrenal corticosteroid rhythms. Protection against heavy drinking among dominant monkeys may have constrained ethanol intoxication, possibly to preserve dominance rank.
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Kalsbeek A, van der Spek R, Lei J, Endert E, Buijs RM, Fliers E. Circadian rhythms in the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2012; 349:20-9. [PMID: 21782883 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2011.06.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 248] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2011] [Revised: 06/29/2011] [Accepted: 06/30/2011] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
The pronounced daily variation in the release of adrenal hormones has been at the heart of the deciphering and understanding of the circadian timing system. Indeed, the first demonstration of an endocrine day/night rhythm was provided by Pincus (1943), by showing a daily pattern of 17-keto-steroid excretion in the urine of 7 healthy males. Twenty years later the adrenal gland was one of the very first organs to show, in vitro, that circadian rhythmicity was maintained. In the seventies, experimental manipulation of the daily corticosterone rhythm served as evidence for the identification of respectively the light- and food-entrainable oscillator. Another 20 years later the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA)-axis was key in furthering our understanding of the way in which rhythmic signals generated by the central pacemaker in the hypothalamic suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) are forwarded to the rest of the brain and to the organism as a whole. To date, the adrenal gland is still of prime importance for understanding how the oscillations of clock genes in peripheral tissues result in functional rhythms of these tissues, whereas it has become even more evident that adrenal glucocorticoids are key in the resetting of the circadian system after a phase-shift. The HPA-axis thus still is an excellent model for studying the transmission of circadian information in the body.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Kalsbeek
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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15
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Son GH, Chung S, Kim K. The adrenal peripheral clock: glucocorticoid and the circadian timing system. Front Neuroendocrinol 2011; 32:451-65. [PMID: 21802440 DOI: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2011.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2010] [Revised: 04/25/2011] [Accepted: 07/06/2011] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The mammalian circadian timing system is organized in a hierarchy, with the master clock residing in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus and subsidiary peripheral clocks in other brain regions as well as peripheral tissues. Since the local oscillators in most cells contain a similar molecular makeup to that in the central pacemaker, determining the role of the peripheral clocks in the regulation of rhythmic physiology and behavior is an important issue. Glucocorticoids (GCs) are a class of multi-functional adrenal steroid hormones, which exhibit a robust circadian rhythm, with a peak linked with the onset of the daily activity phase. It has long been believed that the production and secretion of GC is primarily governed through the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) neuroendocrine axis in mammals. Growing evidence, however, strongly supports the notion that the periodicity of GC involves the integrated activity of multiple regulatory mechanisms related to circadian timing system along with the classical HPA neuroendocrine regulation. The adrenal-intrinsic oscillator as well as the central pacemaker plays a pivotal role in its rhythmicity. GC influences numerous biological processes, such as metabolic, cardiovascular, immune and even higher brain functions, and also acts as a resetting signal for the ubiquitous peripheral clocks, suggesting its importance in harmonizing circadian physiology and behavior. In this review, we will therefore focus on the recent advances in our understanding of the circadian regulation of adrenal GC and its functional relevance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gi Hoon Son
- Department of Biological Sciences, Seoul National University, Brain Research Center for the 21st Century Frontier Program in Neuroscience, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea
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16
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Kwon I, Choe HK, Son GH, Kim K. Mammalian molecular clocks. Exp Neurobiol 2011; 20:18-28. [PMID: 22110358 PMCID: PMC3213736 DOI: 10.5607/en.2011.20.1.18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2010] [Accepted: 01/05/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
As a consequence of the Earth's rotation, almost all organisms experience day and night cycles within a 24-hr period. To adapt and synchronize biological rhythms to external daily cycles, organisms have evolved an internal time-keeping system. In mammals, the master circadian pacemaker residing in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the anterior hypothalamus generates circadian rhythmicity and orchestrates numerous subsidiary local clocks in other regions of the brain and peripheral tissues. Regardless of their locations, these circadian clocks are cell-autonomous and self-sustainable, implicating rhythmic oscillations in a variety of biochemical and metabolic processes. A group of core clock genes provides interlocking molecular feedback loops that drive the circadian rhythm even at the single-cell level. In addition to the core transcription/translation feedback loops, post-translational modifications also contribute to the fine regulation of molecular circadian clocks. In this article, we briefly review the molecular mechanisms and post-translational modifications of mammalian circadian clock regulation. We also discuss the organization of and communication between central and peripheral circadian oscillators of the mammalian circadian clock.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilmin Kwon
- Department of Biological Sciences, Seoul National University and the Brain Research Center for the 21 Century Frontier Program in Neuroscience, Seoul 151-742, Korea
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17
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Torres-Farfan C, Abarzua-Catalan L, Valenzuela FJ, Mendez N, Richter HG, Valenzuela GJ, Serón-Ferré M. Cryptochrome 2 expression level is critical for adrenocorticotropin stimulation of cortisol production in the capuchin monkey adrenal. Endocrinology 2009; 150:2717-22. [PMID: 19246533 DOI: 10.1210/en.2008-1683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Timely production of glucocorticoid hormones in response to ACTH is essential for survival by coordinating energy intake and expenditure and acting as homeostatic regulators against stress. Adrenal cortisol response to ACTH is clock time dependent, suggesting that an intrinsic circadian oscillator in the adrenal cortex contributes to modulate the response to ACTH. Circadian clock gene expression has been reported in the adrenal cortex of several species. However, there are no reports accounting for potential involvement of adrenal clock proteins on cortisol response to ACTH. Here we explored whether the clock protein cryptochrome 2 (CRY2) knockdown modifies the adrenal response to ACTH in a primate. Adrenal gland explants from adult capuchin monkey (n = 5) were preincubated for 6 h with transfection vehicle (control) or with two different Cry2 antisense and sense probes followed by 48 h incubation in medium alone (no ACTH) or with 100 nm ACTH. Under control and sense conditions, ACTH increased cortisol production, whereas CRY2 suppression inhibited ACTH-stimulated cortisol production. Expression of the steroidogenic enzymes steroidogenic acute regulatory protein and 3beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase at 48 h of incubation was increased by ACTH in control explants and suppressed by Cry2 knockdown. Additionally, we found that Cry2 knockdown decreased the expression of the clock gene brain and muscle aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator-like protein (Bmal1) at the mRNA and protein levels. Altogether these results strongly support that the clock protein CRY2 is involved in the mechanism by which ACTH increases the expression of steroidogenic acute regulatory protein and 3beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase. Thus, adequate expression levels of components of the adrenal circadian clock are required for an appropriate cortisol response to ACTH.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Torres-Farfan
- Facultad de Medicina, Programa de Fisiopatología, Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
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18
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles W Wilkinson
- Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, S-182 GRECC, Veterans Affairs Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, Washington 98108, USA.
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Girotti M, Weinberg MS, Spencer RL. Diurnal expression of functional and clock-related genes throughout the rat HPA axis: system-wide shifts in response to a restricted feeding schedule. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2009; 296:E888-97. [PMID: 19190255 PMCID: PMC2670633 DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.90946.2008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The diurnal rhythm of glucocorticoid secretion depends on the suprachiasmatic (SCN) and dorsomedial (putative food-entrainable oscillator; FEO) nuclei of the hypothalamus, two brain regions critical for coordination of physiological responses to photoperiod and feeding cues, respectively. In both cases, time keeping relies upon diurnal oscillations in clock gene (per1, per2, and bmal) expression. Glucocorticoids may play a key role in synchronization of the rest of the body to photoperiod and food availability. Thus glucocorticoid secretion may be both a target and an important effector of SCN and FEO output. Remarkably little, however, is known about the functional diurnal rhythms of the individual components of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. We examined the 24-h pattern of hormonal secretion (ACTH and corticosterone), functional gene expression (c-fos, crh, pomc, star), and clock gene expression (per1, per2 and bmal) in each compartment of the HPA axis under a 12:12-h light-dark cycle and compared with relevant SCN gene expression. We found that each anatomic component of the HPA axis has a unique circadian signature of functional and clock gene expression. We then tested the susceptibility of these measures to nonphotic entrainment cues by restricting food availability to only a portion of the light phase of a 12:12-h light-dark cycle. Restricted feeding is a strong zeitgeber that can dramatically alter functional and clock gene expression at all levels of the HPA axis, despite ongoing photoperiod cues and only minor changes in SCN clock gene expression. Thus the HPA axis may be an important mediator of the body entrainment to the FEO.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milena Girotti
- Department of Pharmacology, MC 7764, University of Texas Health Science Center, 7703 Floyd Curl Dr., San Antonio, TX 78229-3900, USA.
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Valenzuela FJ, Torres-Farfan C, Richter HG, Mendez N, Campino C, Torrealba F, Valenzuela GJ, Serón-Ferré M. Clock gene expression in adult primate suprachiasmatic nuclei and adrenal: is the adrenal a peripheral clock responsive to melatonin? Endocrinology 2008; 149:1454-61. [PMID: 18187542 DOI: 10.1210/en.2007-1518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The circadian production of glucocorticoids involves the concerted action of several factors that eventually allow an adequate adaptation to the environment. Circadian rhythms are controlled by the circadian timing system that comprises peripheral oscillators and a central rhythm generator located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus, driven by the self-regulatory interaction of a set of proteins encoded by genes named clock genes. Here we describe the phase relationship between the SCN and adrenal gland for the expression of selected core clock transcripts (Per-2, Bmal-1) in the adult capuchin monkey, a New World, diurnal nonhuman primate. In the SCN we found a higher expression of Bmal-1 during the h of darkness (2000-0200 h) and Per-2 during daytime h (1400 h). The adrenal gland expressed clock genes in oscillatory fashion, with higher values for Bmal-1 during the day (1400-2000 h), whereas Per-2 was higher at nighttime (about 0200 h), resulting in a 9- to 12-h antiphase pattern. In the adrenal gland, the oscillation of clock genes was accompanied by rhythmic expression of a functional output, the steroidogenic enzyme 3beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase. Furthermore, we show that adrenal explants maintained oscillatory expression of Per-2 and Bmal-1 for at least 36 h in culture. The acrophase of both transcripts, but not its overall expression along the incubation, was blunted by 100 nm melatonin. Altogether, these results demonstrate oscillation of clock genes in the SCN and adrenal gland of a diurnal primate and support an oscillation of clock genes in the adrenal gland that may be modulated by the neurohormone melatonin.
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Affiliation(s)
- F J Valenzuela
- Programa de Fisiopatología, Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, Casilla, Santiago 9, Chile
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