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Kooros SJ, Goossens B, Sterck EHM, Kenderdine R, Malim PT, Ramirez Saldivar DA, Stark DJ. External environmental conditions impact nocturnal activity levels in proboscis monkeys (Nasalis larvatus) living in Sabah, Malaysia. Am J Primatol 2022; 84:e23423. [PMID: 35848355 PMCID: PMC9540267 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.23423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2021] [Revised: 06/24/2022] [Accepted: 07/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Recently, several diurnal nonhuman anthropoids have been identified displaying varying degrees of nocturnal activity, which can be influenced by activity “masking effects”—external events or conditions that suppress or trigger activity, temporarily altering normal activity patterns. Environmental masking characteristics include nocturnal temperature, rainfall, cloud cover, and moon brightness. Similarly, other ecological characteristics, including proximity to humans and predators and daytime activity, may also trigger or suppress nocturnal activity. Understanding the effects of external conditions on activity patterns is pertinent to effective species conservation. We investigated the presence of nocturnal activity and the influence of masking effects on the level of nocturnal activity displayed by wild proboscis monkeys (Nasalis larvatus) in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo. Dual‐axis accelerometers were attached by collar to six male proboscis monkeys from different one‐male, multi‐female groups to record activity continuously (165–401 days each). We measured the monkeys' nocturnal and diurnal activity levels and investigated the effects of seven potential masking effects. Nocturnal activity was much lower than diurnal activity. Still, proboscis monkeys did display varying levels of nocturnal activity. Generalized linear mixed models identified higher nocturnal activity in the study individuals during nights with cooler temperatures, higher rainfall, and after higher diurnal activity. These three masking effects affected nocturnal activity levels during the observation period that informed our model, although they did not predict nocturnal activity outside of this period. While the generalizability of these results remains uncertain, this study highlights the utility of accelerometers in identifying activity patterns and masking effects that create variability in these patterns. Six male proboscis monkeys displayed low levels of nocturnal activity, consistent with a diurnal activity pattern. Nocturnal activity in five of these male proboscis monkeys increased during nights that had cooler temperatures, higher rainfall, and after higher daytime activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie J Kooros
- Animal Behaviour and Cognition, Department of Biology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,c/o Sabah Wildlife Department, Danau Girang Field Centre, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
| | - Benoit Goossens
- c/o Sabah Wildlife Department, Danau Girang Field Centre, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia.,Sabah Wildlife Department, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia.,Sustainable Places Research Institute, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
| | - Elisabeth H M Sterck
- Animal Behaviour and Cognition, Department of Biology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Animal Science Department, Biomedical Primate Research Centre, Rijswijk, The Netherlands
| | | | - Peter T Malim
- Animal Science Department, Biomedical Primate Research Centre, Rijswijk, The Netherlands
| | - Diana A Ramirez Saldivar
- c/o Sabah Wildlife Department, Danau Girang Field Centre, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia.,Animal Science Department, Biomedical Primate Research Centre, Rijswijk, The Netherlands
| | - Danica J Stark
- c/o Sabah Wildlife Department, Danau Girang Field Centre, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia.,Wilder Institute/Calgary Zoo, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
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