Pd0/PR3-catalyzed arylation of nicotinic and isonicotinic acid derivatives

Meta-Selective Copper-Catalyzed C-H Arylation of Pyridines and Isoquinolines through Dearomatized Intermediates

C(sp2)-H functionalization offers an efficient strategy for the synthesis of various elaborated N-containing heteroarenes. Along these lines, oxazino pyridines that can be readily prepared from pyridines, have been introduced as powerful substrates in radical- and ionic-mediated meta-C-H functionalization. However, the regioselective meta-C-H arylation of pyridines remains a great challenge. Herein, a copper-catalyzed meta-selective C-H arylation of pyridines and isoquinolines through bench-stable dearomatized intermediates is reported. Electrophilic aryl-Cu(III) species, generated from readily accessible aryl I(III) reagents, enable the efficient meta-arylation of a broad range of pyridines and isoquinolines. The method also allows the meta-selective alkenylation of these heteroarenes using the corresponding alkenyl I(III)-reagents. Late-stage arylation of drug-derived pyridines and larger-scale experiments demonstrate the potential of this synthetic methodology.

Purple Light-Promoted Coupling of Bromopyridines with Grignard Reagents via SET

Alkyl- and arylpyridines and 2,2'-bipyridines are conventionally prepared by Minisci reactions of pyridines and transition metal-catalyzed coupling reactions of halopyridines. Herein, purple light-promoted radical coupling reactions of 2- or 4-bromopyridines with Grignard reagents in Et2O or a mixture of Et2O and tetrahydrofuran in regular glassware without the need for a transition metal catalyst were disclosed for the first time. Methyl, primary and secondary alkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, pyridyl, and alkynyl Grignard reagents were compatible with the protocol. As a result, alkyl- and arylpyridines and 2,2'-bipyridines were easily prepared. Single electron transfer from the Grignard reagent to bromopyridine was stimulated by purple light. An electron extruded from the dimerization of the Grignard reagent worked as the catalyst. Light on/off experiments indicated that constant irradiation was required for product formation. Studies of radical clock substrates verified the involvement of a pyridyl radical from bromopyridine and the noninvolvement of an alkyl or aryl radical from the Grignard reagent. The available proof supports a photoinduced SRN mechanism for the new coupling reactions.

meta-Selective C-H Functionalization of Pyridines

The pyridine moiety is an important core structure for a variety of drugs, agrochemicals, catalysts, and functional materials. Direct functionalization of C-H bonds in pyridines is a straightforward approach to access valuable substituted pyridines. Compared to the direct ortho- and para-functionalization, meta-selective pyridine C-H functionalization is far more challenging due to the inherent electronic properties of the pyridine entity. This review summarizes currently available methods for pyridine meta-C-H functionalization using a directing group, non-directed metalation, and temporary dearomatization strategies. Recent advances in ligand control and temporary dearomatization are highlighted. We analyze the advantages as well as limitations of current techniques and hope to inspire further developments in this important area.

Direct C(3)5-H Polyfluoroarylation of 2-Amino/alkoxy Pyridines Enabled by a Transient and Electron-deficient Palladium Intermediate

Herein, we present an unprecedented azine-limited C5-H polyfluoroarylation of 2-aminopyridines enabled by a transient and electron-deficient perfluoroaryl-Pd species via C-H/C-H coupling. The protocol further allows C3(5)-H polyfluoroarylation of 2-alkoxypyridines guided by sterics and electronics for the first time. The late-stage C-H functionalization of drugs, drug derivatives, and natural product derivatives and synthesis of C5-aryl drug derivatives further demonstrated the method's utility. The preliminary mechanistic studies reveal that the synergistic combination of the bulky yet electrophilic perfluoroaryl-Pd species and the partial nucleophilicity of the C5-position of 2-amino/alkoxy-pyridines is the origin of reactivity and selectivity. Importantly, the first experimental evidence for the role of diisopropyl sulfide is provided.

Microwave-accelerated cross-dehydrogenative-coupling (CDC) of N-(quinolin-8-yl)amides with acetone/acetonitrile under metal-free conditions

A highly selective remote C(sp³)-H acetonation of N-(quinolin-8-yl)amide scaffolds at the C5-position under microwave irradiation has been developed. In the absence of a transition-metal-catalyst, benzoyl peroxide (BPO)-promoted cross-dehydrogenation coupling (CDC) of N-(quinolin-8-yl)amides with acetone/acetonitrile occurred smoothly to generate the corresponding 5-acetonated/acetonitriled N-(quinolin-8-yl)amides in good yields. The transformation is operationally simple, rapid, easily scaled-up to the gram scale, and shows a broad substrate scope.

Stretching the Bisalkyne Raman Spectral Palette Reveals a New Electrophilic Covalent Motif

Small heteroaryl-diyne (Het-DY) tags with distinct vibrational frequencies, and physiologically relevant cLog P were designed for multiplexed bioorthogonal Raman imaging. Pd-Cu catalyzed coupling, combined with the use of Lei ligand, was shown to improve overall yields of the desired heterocoupled Het-DY tags, minimizing the production of homocoupled side-products. Spectral data were in agreement with the trends predicted by DFT calculations and systematic introduction of electron- rich/poor rings stretched the frequency limit of aryl-capped diynes (2209-2243 cm-1 ). The improved Log P of these Het-DY tags was evident from their diffuse distribution in cellular uptake studies and functionalizing tags with organelle markers allowed the acquisition of location-specific biological images. LC-MS- and NMR-based assays showed that some heteroaryl-capped internal alkynes are potential nucleophile traps with structure-dependent reactivity. These biocompatible Het-DY tags, equipped with covalent reactivity, open up new avenues for Raman bioorthogonal imaging.

Pyridine C(sp2)-H bond functionalization under transition-metal and rare earth metal catalysis

Pyridine is a crucial heterocyclic scaffold that is widely found in organic chemistry, medicines, natural products, and functional materials. In spite of the discovery of several methods for the synthesis of functionalized pyridines or their integration into an organic molecule, new methodologies for the direct functionalization of pyridine scaffolds have been developed during the past two decades. In addition, transition-metal-catalyzed C-H functionalization and rare earth metal-catalyzed reactions have flourished over the past two decades in the development of functionalized organic molecules of concern. In this review, we discuss recent achievements in the transition-metal and rare earth metal-catalyzed C-H bond functionalization of pyridine and look into the mechanisms involved.

Directing Group-Free Regioselective meta-C-H Functionalization of Pyridines

The pyridine core is among the most common motifs found in pharmaceuticals and agrochemicals. Consequently, the C-H functionalization of pyridine is a prized reaction, as it can help access a broad spectrum of valuable chemicals. However, the intrinsic electronic properties of pyridines hinder their meta-C-H functionalization, requiring drastic conditions affecting functional group compatibility. A synthetic manoeuvre to overcome this challenge involves the temporary conversion of pyridines into electron-rich intermediates and subsequent regioselective electrophilic functionalization. This was recently accomplished by a ring-opening ring-closing sequence via Zincke imine intermediates by McNally and co-workers, and a dearomatization-rearomatization sequence via oxazino-pyridine intermediates by the Studer group. The mildness and simplicity of these protocols enable them to work with complex molecular setups for synthesizing natural products and bioactive molecules.

De Novo Synthesis of Polysubstituted 3-Hydroxypyridines Via “Anti-Wacker”-Type Cyclization

We report an efficient method to prepare polysubstituted 3-hydroxypyridines from amino acids, propargyl alcohols, and arylboronic acids. The process involves Pd(0)-catalyzed anti-selective arylative cyclizations of N-propargyl-N-tosyl-aminoaldehydes with arylboronic acids (“anti-Wacker”-type cyclization), oxidation of the resulting 5-substituted-3-hydroxy-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridines to 3-oxo derivatives, and elimination of p-toluenesulfinic acid. This method provides diverse polysubstituted 3-hydroxypyridines, whose hydroxy group can be further substituted by a cross-coupling reaction via a triflate.

Direct C-H Sulfonylimination of Pyridinium Salts

A direct pyridinium C-H sulfonylimination has been developed for the synthesis of sulfonyl iminopyridine derivatives with high efficiency. This transformation features the direct and efficient formation of a C═N bond with a high functional group tolerance under metal-free conditions. The spectroscopic properties potentially enable these sulfonyl iminopyridine compounds to be useful new emitting materials.

Copper-Catalyzed Aldehyde Exchanged Amidation

The synthesis of bioactive amides has been the pursuit of chemists. Herein secondary amides incorporated with an aldehyde group were first generated using aldehydes and secondary amines. Various (hetero)aryl aldehydes and even aliphatic aldehydes (>40 examples) were converted into the desired products in moderate to excellent yields (up to 89%). A plausible mechanism involving a Cu(I/II/III) catalytic cycle combined with radical rearrangement was proposed and confirmed with four key intermediates detected by high-resolution mass spectrometry.

Toolbox for Distal C-H Bond Functionalizations in Organic Molecules

Transition metal catalyzed C-H activation has developed a contemporary approach to the omnipresent area of retrosynthetic disconnection. Scientific researchers have been tempted to take the help of this methodology to plan their synthetic discourses. This paradigm shift has helped in the development of industrial units as well, making the synthesis of natural products and pharmaceutical drugs step-economical. In the vast zone of C-H bond activation, the functionalization of proximal C-H bonds has gained utmost popularity. Unlike the activation of proximal C-H bonds, the distal C-H functionalization is more strenuous and requires distinctly specialized techniques. In this review, we have compiled various methods adopted to functionalize distal C-H bonds, mechanistic insights within each of these procedures, and the scope of the methodology. With this review, we give a complete overview of the expeditious progress the distal C-H activation has made in the field of synthetic organic chemistry while also highlighting its pitfalls, thus leaving the field open for further synthetic modifications.

Regioselective Functionalization of Quinolines through C-H Activation: A Comprehensive Review

Quinoline is a versatile heterocycle that is part of numerous natural products and countless drugs. During the last decades, this scaffold also became widely used as ligand in organometallic catalysis. Therefore, access to functionalized quinolines is of great importance and continuous efforts have been made to develop efficient and regioselective synthetic methods. In this regard, C-H functionalization through transition metal catalysis, which is nowadays the Graal of organic green chemistry, represents the most attractive strategy. We aim herein at providing a comprehensive review of methods that allow site-selective metal-catalyzed C-H functionalization of quinolines, or their quinoline N-oxides counterparts, with a specific focus on their scope and limitations, as well as mechanistic aspects if that accounts for the selectivity.

Theoretical studies on the mechanism of Pd2+-catalyzed regioselective C-H alkylation of indole with MesICH2CF3OTf

The reaction mechanism of Pd²⁺-catalyzed regioselective C-H alkylation of indole with MesICH₂CF₃OTf has been investigated by the density functional theory calculations. The reaction mechanism mainly contains four steps: C-H activation, oxidative addition, reductive elimination, and ligands substitution. From our calculations, we find that the C-H activation step was realized by the acetate anion (^-OAc) assisted concerted metalation deprotonation (CMD) process and the transition state of C-H activation process is a square planar configuration. Moreover, the calculation results suggest that the regioselectivity of C-H bond alkylation of indole with MesICH₂CF₃OTf can be ascribed to the different stability of the CMD transition states in C-H activation step and the relative stabilities of deprotonated intermediates.

Metal-free regioselective C5-cyanoalkylation of the 8-aminoquinolineamides/sulfonamides via oxidative cross-dehydrogenative coupling with alkylnitriles

A practical, versatile and Metal-free regioselective C5-cyanoalkylation of the 8-aminoquinolineamides/sulfonamides with acetonitrile has been described.

Nature-inspired remodeling of (aza)indoles to meta-aminoaryl nicotinates for late-stage conjugation of vitamin B3 to (hetero)arylamines

Despite the availability of numerous routes to substituted nicotinates based on the Bohlmann–Rahtz pyridine synthesis, the existing methods have several limitations, such as the inevitable ortho-substitutions and the inability to conjugate vitamin B₃ to other pharmaceutical agents. Inspired by the biosynthesis of nicotinic acid (a form of vitamin B₃) from tryptophan, we herein report the development of a strategy for the synthesis of meta-aminoaryl nicotinates from 3-formyl(aza)indoles. Our strategy is mechanistically different from the reported routes and involves the transformation of (aza)indole scaffolds into substituted meta-aminobiaryl scaffolds via Aldol-type addition and intramolecular cyclization followed by C–N bond cleavage and re-aromatization. Unlike previous synthetic routes, this biomimetic method utilizes propiolates as enamine precursors and thus allows access to ortho-unsubstituted nicotinates. In addition, the synthetic feasibility toward the halo-/boronic ester-substituted aminobiaryls clearly differentiates the present strategy from other cross-coupling strategies. Most importantly, our method enables the late-stage conjugation of bioactive (hetero)arylamines with nicotinates and nicotinamides and allows access to the previously unexplored chemical space for biomedical research.

Vitamin B3 derivatives display a range of biological activities. Here, the authors report the synthesis of meta-aminoaryl nicotinates, derivatives of vitamin B3, and their late-stage conjugation with (hetero)arylamines, ultimately expanding the chemical space for biomedical research.

Palladium-Catalyzed Electrophilic Functionalization of Pyridine Derivatives through Phosphonium Salts

Herein, we report a highly efficient and practical method for pyridine-derived heterobiaryl synthesis through palladium-catalyzed electrophilic functionalization of easily available pyridine-derived quaternary phosphonium salts. The nice generality of this reaction was goes beyond arylation, enabling facile incorporation of diverse carbon-based fragments, including alkenyl, alkynyl, and also allyl fragments, onto the pyridine core. Notably, the silver salt additive is revealed to be of vital importance for the success of this transformation and its pivotal role as transmetallation mediator, which guarantees a smooth transfer of pyridyl group to palladium intermediate, is also described.

Switching the site-selectivity of C-H activation in aryl sulfonamides containing strongly coordinating N-heterocycles

The limitations of arene C-H functionalization of aryl sulfonamides containing strongly coordinating N-heterocycles were overcome using a Rh(iii) catalyst. The site-selectivity of C-H carbenoid functionalization at the ortho position relative to either the sulfonamide or N-heterocycle directing groups was elegantly switched using solvents of different polarities and different additive concentrations. Importantly, sulfonamide-group-directed ortho-C-H carbenoid functionalization tolerated strongly coordinating N-heterocycles, including pyridine, pyrrole, thiazole, pyrimidine, and pyrazine. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations were performed to rationalize the reaction mechanisms and the influence of reaction polarity.

MnCl2-Catalyzed C-H Alkylation on Azine Heterocycles

Low-valent manganese-catalyzed C-H alkylation of pyridine derivatives with both primary and challenging secondary alkyl halides was established by amide assistance. The strategy provided expedient access to alkylated pyridines with wide functional group tolerance and ample scope through weak chelation. Mechanistic studies provided strong support for a rate-determining C-H activation and a SET-type C-X scission.

Innate pharmacophore assisted selective C–H functionalization to therapeutically important nicotinamides

Tunable and regioselective C–H functionalization of nicotinamides was accomplished assisted by the innate pharmacophore NHOxa.

Copper-Catalyzed Electrochemical C-H Amination of Arenes with Secondary Amines

Electrochemical oxidation represents an environmentally friendly solution to conventional methods that require caustic stoichiometric chemical oxidants. However, C-H functionalizations merging transition-metal catalysis and electrochemical techniques are, to date, largely confined to the use of precious metals and divided cells. Herein, we report the first examples of copper-catalyzed electrochemical C-H aminations of arenes at room temperature using undivided electrochemical cells, thereby providing a practical solution for the construction of arylamines. The use of n-Bu₄NI as a redox mediator is crucial for this transformation. On the basis of mechanistic studies including kinetic profiles, isotope effects, cyclic voltammetric analyses, and radical inhibition experiments, the reaction appears to proceed via a single-electron-transfer (SET) process, and a high valent Cu(III) species is likely involved. These findings provide a new avenue for transition-metal-catalyzed electrochemical C-H functionalization reactions using redox mediators.

A highly site-selective radical sp3 C-H amination of azaheterocycles

This report describes the development of a novel C-H amination strategy using both a Cu(ii) Lewis acid and an organic hydrogen atom transfer catalyst to activate benzylic C-H bonds adjacent to aromatic N-heterocycles. This simple methodology demonstrates very high selectivity towards azaheterocycles without using exogenous directing groups and affords excellent site selectivity in substrates with more than one reactive position. A wide range of heterocyclic structures not compatible with previously reported catalytic systems have proven to be amenable to this approach. Mechanistic investigations strongly support a radical-mediated H-atom abstraction, which explains the observed contrast to known closed-shell Lewis acid catalyzed processes.

Selective remote C–H trifluoromethylation of aminoquinolines with CF3SO2Na under visible light irradiation in the absence of an external photocatalyst

A selective remote C–H trifluoromethylation of aminoquinolines with sodium trifluoromethanesulfinate (CF₃SO₂Na) under visible-light irradiation without an external photocatalyst was developed.

Copper-Mediated Late-Stage Functionalization of Heterocycle-Containing Molecules

One long-standing issue in directed C-H functionalization is that either nitrogen or sulfur atoms present in heterocyclic substrates may bind preferentially to a transition-metal catalyst rather than to the desired directing group. This competitive binding has largely hindered the application of C-H functionalization in late-stage heterocycle drug discovery. Reported here is the use of an oxazoline-based directing group capable of overriding the poisoning effect of a wide range of heterocycle substrates. The potential use of this directing group in pharmaceutical drug discovery is illustrated by diversification of Telmisartan (an antagonist for the angiotensin II receptor) through copper-mediated C-H amination, hydroxylation, thiolation, arylation, and trifluoromethylation.

Metal-Free Synthesis of C-4 Substituted Pyridine Derivatives Using Pyridine-boryl Radicals via a Radical Addition/Coupling Mechanism: A Combined Computational and Experimental Study

Density functional theory investigations revealed that the pyridine-boryl radical generated in situ using 4-cyanopyridine and bis(pinacolato)diboron could be used as a bifunctional "reagent", which serves as not only a pyridine precursor but also a boryl radical. With the unique reactivity of such radicals, 4-substituted pyridine derivatives could be synthesized using α,β-unsaturated ketones and 4-cyanopyridine via a novel radical addition/C-C coupling mechanism. Several controlled experiments were conducted to provide supportive evidence for the proposed mechanism. In addition to enones, the scope could be extended to a wide range of boryl radical acceptors, including various aldehydes and ketones, aryl imines and alkynones. Lastly, this transformation was applied in the late-stage modification of a complicated pharmaceutical molecule.

C-H and C-N Activation at Redox-Active Pyridine Complexes of Iron

Pyridine activation by inexpensive iron catalysts has great utility, but the steps through which iron species can break the strong (105-111 kcal mol-1 ) C-H bonds of pyridine substrates are unknown. In this work, we report the rapid room-temperature cleavage of C-H bonds in pyridine, 4-tert-butylpyridine, and 2-phenylpyridine by an iron(I) species, to give well-characterized iron(II) products. In addition, 4-dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP) undergoes room-temperature C-N bond cleavage, which forms a dimethylamidoiron(II) complex and a pyridyl-bridged tetrairon(II) square. These facile bond-cleaving reactions are proposed to occur through intermediates having a two-electron reduced pyridine that bridges two iron centers. Thus, the redox non-innocence of the pyridine can play a key role in enabling high regioselectivity for difficult reactions.

Ru-Catalysed synthesis of fused heterocycle-pyridinones and -pyrones

Heterocycle-pyridinones and heterocycle-pyranones have been prepared by Ru-catalysed oxidative coupling of N-unprotected primary heterocycle-amides and heterocycle-carboxylic acids with internal alkynes.