Bidentate Boron Lewis Acids: Selectivity in Host-Guest Complex Formation

Flexible bidentate aluminum Lewis acids for host-guest complex formation

This study investigates the design, synthesis, and reactivity of bidentate aluminum Lewis acids supported by amido and cyclopentadienyl donor sets within a flexible 1,4-disubstituted phenylene framework. The reactivity of these complexes with nitrogen-based ditopic donors was systematically explored, revealing their capacity to form host-guest assemblies. Reactions with equimolar pyrazine or quinoxaline yielded 1 : 1 colored adducts, highlighting the potential of these two systems as colorimetric sensors for ditopic nitrogen donors. The reaction with 4,4'-bipyridine, which features a longer N⋯N distance, resulted in a dimeric 2 : 2 adduct. In contrast, sterically demanding nitrogen donors such as 2,3,5,6-tetramethylpyrazine or phenazine showed no reactivity with these bidentate Lewis acids. The results reveal not only the robust Lewis acidic nature of the aluminum centers but also the pivotal role of ligand flexibility in facilitating diverse molecular interactions.

Reactions of 1,1- and 1,2-bis-boranes with a protic diamine and hydrazine

The reactions of 1,1- and 1,2-bis-boranes, PhCH2CH(B(C6F5)2)21 and Me3SiCH(B(C6F5)2)CH2B(C6F5)22, with o-phenylenediamine and hydrazine are reported. The coordination of o-phenylenediamine gives the expected adducts, PhCH2CH(B(C6F5)2(H2N))2C6H44 and Me3SiCH(B(C6F5)2)CH2B(C6F5)2((H2N)2C6H4) 6. Under thermal duress, 4 undergoes retrohydroboration, resulting in the reaction of the diamine with HB(C6F5)2 to give (C6F5)2B(NH)(NH2)C6H45. In contrast, 6 undergoes protolytic loss of C6F5H, affording Me3SiCH(B(C6F5)2)CH2(B(C6F5)(NH2)(NH)C6H4) 7. In a related fashion, the bis-boranes react with hydrazine. In the case of bis-borane 1, the isolated adduct PhCH2CH(B(C6F5)2(NH2))2·THF 8 can be deprotonated to give species 9. In contrast, the reaction of 2 proceeds with rapid protonolysis, leading to the formation of Me3SiCH(B(C6F5)2)CHB(C6F5)(N2H3)·THF 10. This study illustrates both the reaction pathways accessible from the adducts of bis-boranes and the impact of coordination to boron on the acidity of NH groups.

Host-guest chemistry of tridentate Lewis acids based on tribenzotriquinacene

Flexible poly-Lewis acids (PLA) based on the tribenzotriquinacene (TBTQ) scaffold have been synthesised. Hydrosilylation of 4b,8b,12b-triallyltribenzotriquinacene and subsequent exchange of the chlorine substituents with weaker coordinating triflate groups afforded a novel triple silyl-functionalised PLA. By regioselective hydroboration of triallyl-TBTQ with various organoboranes, PLAs with different Lewis acidities were obtained. The synthesised PLAs were combined with neutral bases in host-guest experiments. DOSY NMR spectroscopy was performed to elucidate the complexation process in solution. These experiments revealed a highly dynamic interaction between the boron-functionalised PLA and triazine. However, the addition of one equivalent of tris(dimethylphosphino(methyl))phenylsilane led to the formation of a 1 : 1 adduct, which was confirmed by diffusion experiments.

Tridentate Lewis Acids Based on Tribenzotriquinacene Chalices

Chalice-shaped tridentate poly-Lewis acids (PLA) based on the tribenzotriquinacene (TBTQ) scaffold have been synthesised. Stannylation of the alkyne units, attached via phenyl-spacers to the benzhydrylic positions to the TBTQ scaffold, with Me2NSnMe3 afforded the trimethyltin substituted TBTQ derivative. Replacement of these tin functions with other elements resulted in rigid boron- and aluminium-functionalised PLAs. More flexible PLAs were obtained by hydrometallation reactions of the terminal alkyne groups of 4b,8b,12b-tris((ethynyl)phenyl)tribenzotriquinacene. The resulting poly-Lewis acids were tested for their acceptor abilities in host-guest experiments with suitable bases. Preliminary tests with pyridine led to the synthesis of a large tridentate base with three pyridyl groups attached to a TBTQ backbone. Complexation of this Lewis base with the PLAs resulted in the formation of aggregates, which were studied in solution in more detail by 1H DOSY NMR experiments regarding their size. Further experiments were performed with the tridentate bases 1,4,7-trimethyl-1,4,7-triazacyclononane and tris((dimethylphosphino)methyl)phenylsilane.

Selectivity in Adduct Formation of a Bidentate Boron Lewis Acid

A bidentate boron Lewis acid based on 1,8-diethynylanthracene has been studied in detail with respect to its adduct formation with diamines and diphosphanes of different linker lengths between the donor functions. A clear correlation between the linker length of the bifunctional base and the formation of 1 : 1 adducts, 1 : 2 adducts or oligomers was found. The adducts were characterized in solution by NMR titration experiments and structurally by X-ray diffraction. In addition, adduct formation and competition experiments of the host system with ZR3 (Z=N, P; R=H, Me) demonstrated the generally higher stability of alkylphosphane adducts compared to alkylamine adducts with boron functions. The results provide a general insight into the adduct formation of bidentate Lewis acids with guests of different sizes as well as the differences in stability between borane-amine and borane-phosphane adducts.

Hexadentate poly-Lewis acids based on the bowl-shaped tribenzotriquinacene

Hexadentate poly-Lewis acids (PLA) based on the bowl-shaped tribenzotriquinacene (TBTQ) have been synthesised. The introduction of three n-propyl groups into the benzhydrylic positions of the TBTQ backbone has significantly increased the solubility of the subsequently derived compounds. Semi-flexible PLAs containing boron and aluminium were obtained by hydrometallation of the corresponding 2,3,6,7,10,11-hexaalkynyl-TBTQ. Other rigid hexadentate PLAs were synthesised by stannylation of the corresponding alkyne units with Me3SnNMe2 followed by tin-element exchange reactions. The Lewis acidity of these PLAs was investigated in host-guest experiments with pyridine. Further experiments with bidentate bases showed correlations between their flexibility, their Lewis basicity and the complexation behaviour towards the synthesised PLAs. Addition of bis((dimethylphosphino)methyl)dimethylsilane (BisPhos) to solutions of the rigid alkynyl PLAs led to the formation of 3 : 1 adducts. Single crystal X-ray diffraction was used to further elucidate the host-guest connectivtiy. In addition, a sixfold pnictogen-bonding donor was synthesised by tin-antimony exchange.

Bidentate boron Lewis acids: synthesis by tin boron exchange reaction and host-guest complex formation

Four bidentate boron Lewis acids based on the 1,8-diethynylanthracene backbone have been synthesized by a tin-boron exchange reaction with various chloroboranes, yielding the products in good to excellent yields. Complexation experiments of the host compounds with pyridine, pyrimidine and TMEDA demonstrated striking differences in terms of formation and solubility of the supramolecular adducts. The host-guest complexes were investigated by multinuclear NMR spectroscopy and structurally characterized by X-ray diffraction experiments, illustrating the adaptation of the host system upon adduct formation with different neutral guest molecules.

Boron-Nitrogen Lewis Pairs in the Assembly of Supramolecular Macrocycles, Molecular Cages, Polymers, and 3D Materials

Covering an exceptionally wide range of bond strengths, the dynamic nature and facile tunability of dative B-N bonds is highly attractive when it comes to the assembly of supramolecular polymers and materials. This Minireview offers an overview of advances in the development of functional materials where Lewis pairs (LPs) play a key role in their assembly and critically influence their properties. Specifically, we describe the reversible assembly of linear polymers with interesting optical, electronic and catalytic properties, discrete macrocycles and molecular cages that take up diverse guest molecules and undergo structural changes triggered by external stimuli, covalent organic frameworks (COFs) with intriguing interlocked structures that can embed and separate gases such as CO2 and acetylene, and soft polymer networks that serve as recyclable, self-healing, and responsive thermosets, gels and elastomeric materials.

The Field of Main Group Lewis Acids and Lewis Superacids: Important Basics and Recent Developments

New developments in the field of Lewis acidity are highlighted, with the focus of novel Lewis acids and Lewis superacids of group 2, 13, 14, and 15 elements. Several important basics, illustrated by modern examples (classification of Donor-Acceptor (DA) complexes, amphoteric nature of any compound in terms of DA interactions, reorganization energies of main group Lewis acids and the role of the energies of frontier orbitals) are presented and discussed. It is emphasized that the Lewis acidity phenomena are general and play vital role in different areas of chemistry: from weak "atomophilic" interactions to the complexes of Lewis superacids.

A Bidentate Antimony Pnictogen Bonding Host System

A bidentate pnictogen bonding host-system based on 1,8-diethynylanthracene was synthesized by a selective tin-antimony exchange reaction and investigated regarding its ability to act as a Lewis acidic host component for the complexation of Lewis basic or anionic guests. In this work, the novel C≡C-Sb(C2 F5 )2 unit was established to study the potential of antimony(III) sites as representatives for the scarcely explored pnictogen bonding donors. The capability of this partly fluorinated host system was investigated towards halide anions (Cl- , Br- , I- ), dimethyl chalcogenides Me2 Y (Y=O, S, Se, Te), and nitrogen heterocycles (pyridine, pyrimidine). Insights into the adduct formation behavior as well as the bonding situation of such E⋅⋅⋅Sb-CF moieties were obtained in solution by means of NMR spectroscopy, in the solid state by X-ray diffraction, by elemental analyses, and by computational methods (DFT, QTAIM, IQA), respectively.

DFT mechanistic studies of boron-silicon exchange reactions between silyl-substituted arenes and boron bromides

C-B bond forming reactions are important methodologies in modern synthetic chemistry, since many borylated organic substrates, ranging from alkanes and alkenes to arenes and heteroarenes, are useful intermediates for the synthesis of natural products, pharmaceuticals, and organic π-conjugated materials. Among numerous borylation methods, C-Si/B-Br exchange reactions have attracted increasing attention in recent years. While experimental exploration has been continually carried out for more than two decades, mechanistic insights into this type of reaction have not yet been clearly established. To address this deficiency of knowledge, we performed density functional theory (DFT) calculations to map out the reaction pathways for a range of boron-silicon exchange reactions between boron tribromide (BBr₃) and trimethylsilyl-substituted arenes (TMSAr). Our computational analyses have disclosed the energetic, structural, and electronic properties for key stationary points on the potential energy surfaces (PES) in both the gas and solution (CH₂Cl₂) phases.

Synthesis of bi- and tetradentate poly-Lewis acids by hydroalumination of poly-alkynyl-anthracene derivatives

Photo-dimers of 1,5-diethynylanthracene and 1,5-bis[(trimethylsilyl)ethynyl]anthracene, obtained by UV radiation of the monomers, were treated with the bulky aluminium hydride [(SiMe₃)₂HC]₂AlH in hydroalumination reactions. Hydroalumination of the tetraethynyl-substituted anthracene photo-dimers (syn and anti) led to fourfold aluminium-functionalized Janus-like products with two aluminium functions on each side oriented towards the same direction. The reactions of the monomeric anthracene derivatives with [(SiMe₃)₂HC]₂AlH afforded semi-flexible bidentate Lewis acids, which are interesting building blocks for molecular chains bearing multiple Lewis-acidic functions. The aluminium-functionalized anti-photo-dimer was treated with various donor molecules to gain insight into its host-guest chemistry. All poly-Lewis acids and their adducts were characterized by X-ray diffraction experiments, multinuclear NMR spectroscopy and by elemental analyses.

Host guest chemistry of a bidentate silyl-triflate bis-Lewis-acid – complex complexation behaviour unravelled by diffusion NMR spectroscopy

The bidentate silicon-based Lewis acid, bis(dimethyl-(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)silylethyl)dimethylsilane, Me2Si[(CH2)2SiMe2-OTf]2, was prepared by a two-step synthesis starting from dimethyldivinylsilane by hydrosilylation with dimethylchlorosilane and subsequent Lewis acidity enhancement of the terminal silicon atoms...

Synthesis of a bifunctional boron-Lewis acid and studies on host-guest chemistry using pyridine and TMPD

Based on the previously described bifunctional Lewis acid with a functional distance of the boron functions of 4.918(2) Å, the development of a further bifunctional, boron-containing Lewis acid with a wider functional distance is demonstrated. Again, a stannylated precursor was used and the Lewis-acidic boron functions were introduced by means of tin-boron exchange. The general suitability of this class of compounds for the formation of host-guest-complexes is demonstrated by NMR experiments and by solid-state structures using pyridine and TMPD (N 1,N 1,N 4,N 4-tetramethylbenzene-1,4-diamine) as Lewis basic guests. The influence of traces of moisture on the boron-containing, bifunctional Lewis acids was investigated by the structure elucidation of a decomposition product.

Anion Chelation via Double Chalcogen Bonding: The Case of a Bis-telluronium Dication and Its Application in Electrophilic Catalysis via Metal-Chloride Bond Activation

Telluronium cations have long been known to engage their counteranions via secondary interactions. Yet, this property has rarely been exploited for anion binding. Motivated by such an application, we have now synthesized a bis-telluronium dication ([3]²⁺) that was obtained as a tetrafluoroborate salt by reaction of 2,7-di-tert-butyl-9,9-dimethylxanthene-4,5-diboronic acid with phenoxatellurine difluoride and BF₃·OEt₂. As confirmed by the formation of Te-(μ-BF₄)-Te bridges in the structure of [3][BF₄]₂, [3]²⁺ functions as a bidentate Lewis acid toward anions. [3][BF₄]₂ has also been converted into the more exposed [3][BArF₂₄]₂ ([BArF₂₄]^- = [B(3,5-(CF₃)₂C₆H₃)₄]^-). The latter, which readily ionizes Ph₃CCl, displays a chloride anion binding constant that exceeds that of a monofunctional model compound by almost 4 orders of magnitude. The unique properties of this new bis-telluronium dication are further highlighted by its ability to activate Ph₃PAuCl and cis-(Ph₃P)₂PtCl₂, leading to catalytic systems highly active in the cycloisomerization of propargylamide or enyne substrates.

Distiboranes based on ortho-phenylene backbones as bidentate Lewis acids for fluoride anion chelation

As part of our efforts in the chemistry of main group platforms that support anion sensing and transport, we are now reporting the synthesis of anitmony-based bidentate Lewis acids featuring the o-C6F4 backbone. These compounds can be easily accessed by reaction of the newly synthesized o-C6F4(SbPh2)2 (5) with o-chloranil or octafluorophenanthra-9,10-quinone, affording the corresponding distiboranes 6 and 7 of general formula o-C6F4(SbPh2(diolate))2 with diolate = tetrachlorocatecholate for 6 and octafluorophenanthrene-9,10-diolate for 7, respectively. While 6 is very poorly soluble, its octafluorophenanthrene-9,10-diolate analog 7 readily dissolves in CH2Cl2 and undergoes swift conversion into the corresponding fluoride chelate complex [7-μ2-F]- which has been isolated as a [nBu4N]+ salt. The o-C6H4 analog of 7, referred to as 8, has also been prepared. Although less Lewis acidic than 7, 8 also forms a very stable fluoride chelate complex ([8-μ2-F]-). Altogether, our experiental results, coupled with computational analyses and fluoride anion affinity calculations, show that 7 and 8 are some of the strongest antimony-based fluoride anion chelators prepared to date. Another notable aspect of this work concerns the use of the octafluorophenanthrene-9,10-diolate ligand and its ablity to impart advantageous solubility and Lewis acidity properties.

Hydrogen-bond-induced selectivity of a head-to-head photo-dimerisation of dialkynylanthracene - access to tetradentate Lewis acids

Using 2-hydroxypropyl-protecting groups, 1,8-dialkynylanthracene photo-dimers were prepared in head-to-head-configuration by UV irradiation on a multi-gram scale. In non-polar solvents, the combination of non-covalent hydrogen bonds and π-π-interactions induces the formation of the syn-isomer in up to 85% yield. Instead, more polar solvents or irradiation of unprotected 1,8-diethynylanthracene led to formation of the corresponding anti-isomer in large excess. Cleavage of the protecting groups under basic conditions affords a rigid hydrocarbon skeleton with four directional functions. This was used as a building block for a tetradentate boron Lewis acid. Its applicability as a host for Lewis-base substrates was demonstrated by the formation of adducts with various nitrogen bases. Adduct formation with hydrazine leads to impressive networks between the tetraboron host and the substrate molecules.

Synthesis, structure and anion binding properties of 1,8-bis(dimesitylboryl)anthracene and its monoborylated analog

Two boranes, 1-(dimesitylboryl)anthracene (1) and 1,8-bis(dimesitylboryl)anthracene (2), have been synthesized with the spectrophysical properties showing how the inclusion of one or two boron atoms progressively perturbs the π-system of the anthracene backbone. This perturbation is caused by conjugation of the anthracene-π* orbital with the vacant p-orbital on boron. Additionally, both 1 and 2 have a high affinity for fluoride and cyanide anions which are complexed in a 1 : 1 guest-host ratio. The mono-borane 1 is particularly well-suited for cyanide binding, displaying a binding constant of 3 × 107 in THF. Furthermore, as a result of their unique electronic structures, these boranes display a fluorescence response to fluoride anion characterized by a blue shift in the case of 1 and a red shift in the case of 2.

N-Heterocyclic Carbene Adducts of Alkynyl Functionalized 1,3,2-Dithioborolanes

Alkynyl functionalized boron compounds are versatile intermediates in the areas of medicinal chemistry, materials science, and optical materials. In particular, alkynyl boronate esters [R¹−C≡C−B(OR²)₂] are of interest since they provide reactivity at both the alkyne entity, with retention of the B−C bond or alkyne transfer to electrophilic substrates with scission of the latter. The boron atom is commonly well stabilized due to (i) the extraordinary strength of two B−O bonds, and (ii) the chelate effect exerted by a bifunctional alcohol. We reasoned that the replacement of a B−O for a B−S bond would lead to higher reactivity and post-functionalization in the resulting alkynyl boronate thioesters [R¹−C≡C−B(S₂X)]. Access to this poorly investigated class of compounds starts form chloro dithioborolane cyclo-Cl−B(S₂C₂H₄) as a representative example. Whereas syntheses of three coordinate alkynyl boronate thioesters [R¹−C≡C−B(S₂X)] proved to be ineffective, the reactions of NHC-adducts (NHC = N-heterocyclic carbene) of cyclo-Cl-B(S₂C₂H₄) afforded the alkyne substituted thioboronate esters in good yield. The products NHC−B(S₂C₂H₄)(C≡C-R¹) are remarkably stable towards water and air, which suggests their use as boron-based building blocks for applications akin to oxygen-based boronate esters.

Trifunctional organometallic frameworks and cages based on all-cis-1,3,5-triethynyl-1,3,5-trisilacyclohexanes

All-cis-1,3,5-triethynyl-1,3,5-triorganyl-1,3,5-trisilacyclohexanes (organyl R = Me, Ph) offer flexible scaffolds with three concordantly oriented ethynyl groups. Lithiation with n-BuLi affords the dimeric {[CH2Si(R)(C2Li)]3(THF)3}2 with a drum-like structure in high yields. They can be transformed into other trinuclear organometallic derivatives like the trimercury cage species [CH2Si(R)C2HgC2(R)SiCH2]3.