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Lin X, Li Y, Xu Z, Yu S, Feng J, Diao A, Yao P, Wu Q, Zhu D. Engineered Imine Reductase for Asymmetric Synthesis of Dextromethorphan Key Intermediate. Org Lett 2024; 26:4463-4468. [PMID: 38747552 DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.4c01079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2024]
Abstract
(S)-1-(4-Methoxybenzyl)-1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8-octahydroisoquinoline ((S)-1-(4-methoxybenzyl)-OHIQ) is the key intermediate of the nonopioid antitussive dextromethorphan. In this study, (S)-IR61-V69Y/P123A/W179G/F182I/L212V (M4) was identified with a 766-fold improvement in catalytic efficiency compared with wide-type IR61 through enzyme engineering. M4 could completely convert 200 mM of 1-(4-methoxybenzyl)-3,4,5,6,7,8-hexahydroisoquinoline into (S)-1-(4-methoxybenzyl)-OHIQ in 77% isolated yield, with >99% enantiomeric excess and a high space-time yield of 542 g L-1 day-1, demonstrating a great potential for the synthesis of dextromethorphan intermediate in industrial applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaofeng Lin
- School of Biotechnology, Key Lab of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology of the Ministry of Education, State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
- Key Laboratory of Engineering Biology for Low-carbon Manufacturing, National Engineering Research Center of Industrial Enzymes, National Center of Technology Innovation for Synthetic Biology, Tianjin Engineering Research Center of Biocatalytic Technology, and Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin 300308, China
| | - Yixuan Li
- Key Laboratory of Engineering Biology for Low-carbon Manufacturing, National Engineering Research Center of Industrial Enzymes, National Center of Technology Innovation for Synthetic Biology, Tianjin Engineering Research Center of Biocatalytic Technology, and Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin 300308, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Zefei Xu
- Key Laboratory of Engineering Biology for Low-carbon Manufacturing, National Engineering Research Center of Industrial Enzymes, National Center of Technology Innovation for Synthetic Biology, Tianjin Engineering Research Center of Biocatalytic Technology, and Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin 300308, China
| | - Shanshan Yu
- Key Laboratory of Engineering Biology for Low-carbon Manufacturing, National Engineering Research Center of Industrial Enzymes, National Center of Technology Innovation for Synthetic Biology, Tianjin Engineering Research Center of Biocatalytic Technology, and Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin 300308, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Jinhui Feng
- Key Laboratory of Engineering Biology for Low-carbon Manufacturing, National Engineering Research Center of Industrial Enzymes, National Center of Technology Innovation for Synthetic Biology, Tianjin Engineering Research Center of Biocatalytic Technology, and Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin 300308, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Aipo Diao
- School of Biotechnology, Key Lab of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology of the Ministry of Education, State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
| | - Peiyuan Yao
- Key Laboratory of Engineering Biology for Low-carbon Manufacturing, National Engineering Research Center of Industrial Enzymes, National Center of Technology Innovation for Synthetic Biology, Tianjin Engineering Research Center of Biocatalytic Technology, and Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin 300308, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Qiaqing Wu
- Key Laboratory of Engineering Biology for Low-carbon Manufacturing, National Engineering Research Center of Industrial Enzymes, National Center of Technology Innovation for Synthetic Biology, Tianjin Engineering Research Center of Biocatalytic Technology, and Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin 300308, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Dunming Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Engineering Biology for Low-carbon Manufacturing, National Engineering Research Center of Industrial Enzymes, National Center of Technology Innovation for Synthetic Biology, Tianjin Engineering Research Center of Biocatalytic Technology, and Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin 300308, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
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2
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Yin HN, Wang PC, Liu Z. Recent advances in biocatalytic C-N bond-forming reactions. Bioorg Chem 2024; 144:107108. [PMID: 38244379 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2024.107108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2023] [Revised: 12/25/2023] [Accepted: 01/06/2024] [Indexed: 01/22/2024]
Abstract
Molecules containing C-N bonds are of paramount importance in a diverse array of organic-based materials, natural products, pharmaceutical compounds, and agricultural chemicals. Biocatalytic C-N bond-forming reactions represent powerful strategies for producing these valuable targets, and their significance in the field of synthetic chemistry has steadily increased over the past decade. In this review, we provide a concise overview of recent advancements in the development of C-N bond-forming enzymes, with a particular emphasis on the inherent chemistry involved in these enzymatic processes. Overall, these enzymatic systems have proven their potential in addressing long-standing challenges in traditional small-molecule catalysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong-Ning Yin
- National Institute of Biological Sciences, Beijing 102206, China; Tsinghua Institute of Multidisciplinary Biomedical Research, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Peng-Cheng Wang
- National Institute of Biological Sciences, Beijing 102206, China
| | - Zhen Liu
- National Institute of Biological Sciences, Beijing 102206, China; Tsinghua Institute of Multidisciplinary Biomedical Research, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China.
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3
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Wu K, Yan J, Liu Q, Wang X, Wu P, Cao Y, Lu X, Xu Y, Huang J, Shao L. Computational design of an imine reductase: mechanism-guided stereoselectivity reversion and interface stabilization. Chem Sci 2024; 15:1431-1440. [PMID: 38274081 PMCID: PMC10806680 DOI: 10.1039/d3sc04636b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2023] [Accepted: 12/12/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Imine reductases (IREDs) are important biocatalysts in the asymmetric synthesis of chiral amines. However, a detailed understanding of the stereocontrol mechanism of IRED remains incomplete, making the design of IRED for producing the desired amine enantiomers challenging. In this study, we investigated the stereoselective catalytic mechanism and designed an (R)-stereoselective IRED from Paenibacillus mucilaginosus (PmIR) using pharmaceutically relevant 2-aryl-substituted pyrrolines as substrates. A putative mechanism for controlling stereoselectivity was proposed based on the crucial role of electrostatic interactions in controlling iminium cation orientation and employed to achieve complete inversion of stereoselectivity in PmIR using computational design. The variant PmIR-Re (Q138M/P140M/Y187E/Q190A/D250M/R251N) exhibited opposite (S)-stereoselectivity, with >96% enantiomeric excess (ee) towards tested 2-aryl-substituted pyrrolines. Computational tools were employed to identify stabilizing mutations at the interface between the two subunits. The variant PmIR-6P (P140A/Q190S/R251N/Q217E/A257R/T277M) showed a nearly 5-fold increase in activity and a 12 °C increase in melting temperature. The PmIR-6P successfully produced (R)-2-(2,5-difluorophenyl)-pyrrolidine, a key chiral pharmaceutical intermediate, at a concentration of 400 mM with an ee exceeding 99%. This study provides insight into the stereocontrol elements of IREDs and demonstrates the potential of computational design for tailored stereoselectivity and thermal stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Wu
- School of Pharmacy, Shanghai University of Medicine & Health Sciences 279 Zhouzhu Highway, Pudong New Area Shanghai 201318 China
| | - Jinrong Yan
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University of Engineering Science 333 Longteng Road Shanghai 201620 China
- State Key Laboratory of New Drug and Pharmaceutical Process, Shanghai Institute of Pharmaceutical Industry 285 Gebaini Rd. Shanghai 200040 China
| | - Qinde Liu
- School of Pharmacy, Shanghai University of Medicine & Health Sciences 279 Zhouzhu Highway, Pudong New Area Shanghai 201318 China
- Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine 1200 Cailun Road Shanghai 201203 China
| | - Xiaojing Wang
- School of Pharmacy, Shanghai University of Medicine & Health Sciences 279 Zhouzhu Highway, Pudong New Area Shanghai 201318 China
| | - Piaoru Wu
- School of Pharmacy, Shanghai University of Medicine & Health Sciences 279 Zhouzhu Highway, Pudong New Area Shanghai 201318 China
| | - Yiyang Cao
- School of Pharmacy, Shanghai University of Medicine & Health Sciences 279 Zhouzhu Highway, Pudong New Area Shanghai 201318 China
| | - Xiuhong Lu
- School of Pharmacy, Shanghai University of Medicine & Health Sciences 279 Zhouzhu Highway, Pudong New Area Shanghai 201318 China
| | - Yixin Xu
- School of Pharmacy, Shanghai University of Medicine & Health Sciences 279 Zhouzhu Highway, Pudong New Area Shanghai 201318 China
| | - Junhai Huang
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University of Engineering Science 333 Longteng Road Shanghai 201620 China
- State Key Laboratory of New Drug and Pharmaceutical Process, Shanghai Institute of Pharmaceutical Industry 285 Gebaini Rd. Shanghai 200040 China
| | - Lei Shao
- School of Pharmacy, Shanghai University of Medicine & Health Sciences 279 Zhouzhu Highway, Pudong New Area Shanghai 201318 China
- State Key Laboratory of New Drug and Pharmaceutical Process, Shanghai Institute of Pharmaceutical Industry 285 Gebaini Rd. Shanghai 200040 China
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Yuan B, Yang D, Qu G, Turner NJ, Sun Z. Biocatalytic reductive aminations with NAD(P)H-dependent enzymes: enzyme discovery, engineering and synthetic applications. Chem Soc Rev 2024; 53:227-262. [PMID: 38059509 DOI: 10.1039/d3cs00391d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/08/2023]
Abstract
Chiral amines are pivotal building blocks for the pharmaceutical industry. Asymmetric reductive amination is one of the most efficient and atom economic methodologies for the synthesis of optically active amines. Among the various strategies available, NAD(P)H-dependent amine dehydrogenases (AmDHs) and imine reductases (IREDs) are robust enzymes that are available from various sources and capable of utilizing a broad range of substrates with high activities and stereoselectivities. AmDHs and IREDs operate via similar mechanisms, both involving a carbinolamine intermediate followed by hydride transfer from the co-factor. In addition, both groups catalyze the formation of primary and secondary amines utilizing both organic and inorganic amine donors. In this review, we discuss advances in developing AmDHs and IREDs as biocatalysts and focus on evolutionary history, substrate scope and applications of the enzymes to provide an outlook on emerging industrial biotechnologies of chiral amine production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Yuan
- Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin 300308, China.
- Key Laboratory of Engineering Biology for Low-Carbon Manufacturing, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 32 West 7th Avenue, Tianjin Airport Economic Area, Tianjin 300308, China
| | - Dameng Yang
- Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin 300308, China.
| | - Ge Qu
- Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin 300308, China.
- Key Laboratory of Engineering Biology for Low-Carbon Manufacturing, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 32 West 7th Avenue, Tianjin Airport Economic Area, Tianjin 300308, China
| | - Nicholas J Turner
- Department of Chemistry, Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, University of Manchester, Manchester M1 7DN, UK.
| | - Zhoutong Sun
- Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin 300308, China.
- Key Laboratory of Engineering Biology for Low-Carbon Manufacturing, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 32 West 7th Avenue, Tianjin Airport Economic Area, Tianjin 300308, China
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5
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Zhou H, Chuang P, Xu L, Wu Q. Asymmetric Synthesis of Bulky N-Cyclopropylmethyl-1-aryl-1-phenylmethylamines Catalyzed by Engineered Imine Reductases. Org Lett 2023; 25:6688-6692. [PMID: 37671859 DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.3c02542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/07/2023]
Abstract
Enzymatic reduction of diphenylmethanimine derivatives has rarely been reported owing to their steric hindrance. Herein, imine reductase (IRED) from Nocardia cyriacigeorgica rationally engineered with an efficient strategy of focused rational iterative site-specific mutagenesis (FRISM) was selected for the reduction of a series of N-cyclopropylmethyl-1-aryl-1-phenylmethylimines. Two highly enantioselective IRED variants were identified, providing various bulky amine products with moderate to high yields and high ee values (up to >99%). This work provided an effective method to construct these important pharmaceutical intermediates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haonan Zhou
- Center of Chemistry for Frontier Technologies, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, P. R. China
| | - Peihsuan Chuang
- Center of Chemistry for Frontier Technologies, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, P. R. China
| | - Leyan Xu
- Center of Chemistry for Frontier Technologies, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, P. R. China
| | - Qi Wu
- Center of Chemistry for Frontier Technologies, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, P. R. China
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6
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Li Y, Yue X, Li Z, Huang Z, Chen F. Asymmetric Synthesis of Sterically Hindered 1-Substituted Tetrahydro-β-carbolines Enabled by Imine Reductase: Enzyme Discovery, Protein Engineering, and Reaction Development. Org Lett 2023; 25:1285-1289. [PMID: 36802632 DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.3c00147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/22/2023]
Abstract
We report the discovery of a new imine reductase (IRED), named AtIRED, by genome mining. Site-saturation mutagenesis on AtIRED generated two single mutants M118'L and P120'G and the double mutant M118'L/P120'G with improved specific activity toward sterically hindered 1-substituted dihydro-β-carbolines. The synthetic potential of these engineered IREDs was showcased by the preparative-scale synthesis of nine chiral 1-substituted tetrahydro-β-carbolines (THβCs), including (S)-1-t-butyl-THβC and (S)-1-t-pentyl-THβC, in 30-87% isolated yields with excellent optical purities (98-99% ee).
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Affiliation(s)
- Yitong Li
- Sichuan Research Center for Drug Precision Industrial Technology, West China School of Pharmacy, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, P.R. China
| | - Xiaoping Yue
- Sichuan Research Center for Drug Precision Industrial Technology, West China School of Pharmacy, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, P.R. China
| | - Zhining Li
- Department of Chemistry, Engineering Center of Catalysis and Synthesis for Chiral Molecules, Fudan University, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Industrial Asymmetric Cataly sis of Chiral Drugs, 220 Handan Road, Shanghai 200433, P.R. China
| | - Zedu Huang
- Department of Chemistry, Engineering Center of Catalysis and Synthesis for Chiral Molecules, Fudan University, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Industrial Asymmetric Cataly sis of Chiral Drugs, 220 Handan Road, Shanghai 200433, P.R. China
| | - Fener Chen
- Sichuan Research Center for Drug Precision Industrial Technology, West China School of Pharmacy, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, P.R. China.,Department of Chemistry, Engineering Center of Catalysis and Synthesis for Chiral Molecules, Fudan University, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Industrial Asymmetric Cataly sis of Chiral Drugs, 220 Handan Road, Shanghai 200433, P.R. China
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7
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Gilio A, Thorpe TW, Heyam A, Petchey MR, Pogrányi B, France SP, Howard RM, Karmilowicz MJ, Lewis R, Turner N, Grogan G. A Reductive Aminase Switches to Imine Reductase Mode for a Bulky Amine Substrate. ACS Catal 2023; 13:1669-1677. [PMID: 36776386 PMCID: PMC9903292 DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.2c06066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2022] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Imine reductases (IREDs) catalyze the asymmetric reduction of cyclic imines, but also in some cases the coupling of ketones and amines to form secondary amine products in an enzyme-catalyzed reductive amination (RedAm) reaction. Enzymatic RedAm reactions have typically used small hydrophobic amines, but many interesting pharmaceutical targets require that larger amines be used in these coupling reactions. Following the identification of IR77 from Ensifer adhaerens as a promising biocatalyst for the reductive amination of cyclohexanone with pyrrolidine, we have characterized the ability of this enzyme to catalyze couplings with larger bicyclic amines such as isoindoline and octahydrocyclopenta(c)pyrrole. By comparing the activity of IR77 with reductions using sodium cyanoborohydride in water, it was shown that, while the coupling of cyclohexanone and pyrrolidine involved at least some element of reductive amination, the amination with the larger amines likely occurred ex situ, with the imine recruited from solution for enzyme reduction. The structure of IR77 was determined, and using this as a basis, structure-guided mutagenesis, coupled with point mutations selecting improving amino acid sites suggested by other groups, permitted the identification of a mutant A208N with improved activity for amine product formation. Improvements in conversion were attributed to greater enzyme stability as revealed by X-ray crystallography and nano differential scanning fluorimetry. The mutant IR77-A208N was applied to the preparative scale amination of cyclohexanone at 50 mM concentration, with 1.2 equiv of three larger amines, in isolated yields of up to 93%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amelia
K. Gilio
- Department
of Chemistry, University of York, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, U.K.
| | - Thomas W. Thorpe
- School
of Chemistry, Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester M1 7DN, U.K.
| | - Alex Heyam
- Department
of Chemistry, University of York, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, U.K.
| | - Mark R. Petchey
- Department
of Chemistry, University of York, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, U.K.
| | - Balázs Pogrányi
- Department
of Chemistry, University of York, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, U.K.
| | - Scott P. France
- Pfizer
Worldwide Research and Development, 445 Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Roger M. Howard
- Pfizer
Worldwide Research and Development, 445 Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Michael J. Karmilowicz
- Pfizer
Worldwide Research and Development, 445 Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Russell Lewis
- Pfizer
Worldwide Research and Development, 445 Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Nicholas Turner
- School
of Chemistry, Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester M1 7DN, U.K.
| | - Gideon Grogan
- Department
of Chemistry, University of York, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, U.K.,
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Actinomycetes-derived imine reductases with a preference towards bulky amine substrates. Commun Chem 2022; 5:123. [PMID: 36697820 PMCID: PMC9814587 DOI: 10.1038/s42004-022-00743-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2022] [Accepted: 09/26/2022] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Since imine reductases (IREDs) were reported to catalyze the reductive amination reactions, they became particularly attractive for producing chiral amines. Though diverse ketones and aldehydes have been proved to be excellent substrates of IREDs, bulky amines have been rarely transformed. Here we report the usage of an Increasing-Molecule-Volume-Screening to identify a group of IREDs (IR-G02, 21, and 35) competent for accepting bulky amine substrates. IR-G02 shows an excellent substrate scope, which is applied to synthesize over 135 amine molecules as well as a range of APIs' substructures. The crystal structure of IR-G02 reveals the determinants for altering the substrate preference. Finally, we demonstrate a gram-scale synthesis of an analogue of the API sensipar via a kinetic resolution approach, which displays ee >99%, total turnover numbers of up to 2087, and space time yield up to 18.10 g L-1 d-1.
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Ding Y, Perez-Ortiz G, Peate J, Barry SM. Redesigning Enzymes for Biocatalysis: Exploiting Structural Understanding for Improved Selectivity. Front Mol Biosci 2022; 9:908285. [PMID: 35936784 PMCID: PMC9355150 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2022.908285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Accepted: 06/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The discovery of new enzymes, alongside the push to make chemical processes more sustainable, has resulted in increased industrial interest in the use of biocatalytic processes to produce high-value and chiral precursor chemicals. Huge strides in protein engineering methodology and in silico tools have facilitated significant progress in the discovery and production of enzymes for biocatalytic processes. However, there are significant gaps in our knowledge of the relationship between enzyme structure and function. This has demonstrated the need for improved computational methods to model mechanisms and understand structure dynamics. Here, we explore efforts to rationally modify enzymes toward changing aspects of their catalyzed chemistry. We highlight examples of enzymes where links between enzyme function and structure have been made, thus enabling rational changes to the enzyme structure to give predictable chemical outcomes. We look at future directions the field could take and the technologies that will enable it.
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