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Trenerry MJ, Acosta M, Berry JF. Computational Analysis of Low Overpotential Ammonia Oxidation by Metal-Metal Bonded Ruthenium Catalysts, and Predictions for Related Osmium Catalysts. J Phys Chem A 2024; 128:4038-4051. [PMID: 38742806 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpca.4c02490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2024]
Abstract
The catalyzed electrochemical oxidation of ammonia to nitrogen (AOR) is an important fuel-cell half-reaction that underpins a future nitrogen-based energy economy. Our laboratory has reported spontaneous chemical and electrochemical oxidation of ammonia to dinitrogen via reaction of ammonia with the metal-metal bonded diruthenium complex Ru2(chp)4OTf (chp- = 2-chloro-6-hydroxypyridinate, TfO- = trifluoromethanesulfonate). This complex facilitates electrocatalytic ammonia oxidation at mild applied potentials of -255 mV vs ferrocene, which is the [Ru2(chp)4(NH3)]0/+ redox potential. We now report a comprehensive computational investigation of possible mechanisms for this reaction and electronic structure analysis of key intermediates therein. We extend this analysis to proposed second-generation electrocatalysts bearing structurally similar fhp and hmp (2-fluoro-6-hydroxypyridinate and 2-hydroxy-6-methylpyridinate, respectively) equatorial ligands, and we further expand this study from Ru2 to analogous Os2 cores. Predicted M24+/5+ redox potentials, which we expect to correlate with experimental AOR overpotential, depend strongly on the identity of the metal center, and to a lesser degree on the nature of the equatorial supporting ligand. Os2 complexes are easier to oxidize than analogous Ru2 complexes by ∼640 mV, on average. In contrast to mono-Ru catalysts, which oxidize ammonia via a rate-limiting activation of the strong N-H bond, we find lowest-energy reaction pathways for Ru2 and Os2 complexes that involve direct N-N bond formation onto electrophilic intermediates having terminal amido, imido, or nitrido groups. While transition state energies for Os2 complexes are high, those for Ru2 complexes are moderate and notably lower than those for mono-Ru complexes. We attribute these lower barriers to enhanced electrophilicity of the Ru2 intermediates, which is a consequence of their metal-metal bonded structure. Os2 intermediates are found to be, surprisingly, less electrophilic, and we suggest that Os2 complexes may require access to oxidation states higher than Os25+ in order to perform AOR at reasonable reaction rates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Trenerry
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin - Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota - Twin Cities, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Milton Acosta
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin - Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
| | - John F Berry
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin - Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
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2
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Rütter D, van Gastel M, Leutzsch M, Nöthling N, SantaLucia D, Neese F, Fürstner A. Molybdenum(VI) Nitrido Complexes with Tripodal Silanolate Ligands. Structure and Electronic Character of an Unsymmetrical Dimolybdenum μ-Nitrido Complex Formed by Incomplete Nitrogen Atom Transfer. Inorg Chem 2024; 63:8376-8389. [PMID: 38663089 PMCID: PMC11080062 DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.4c00762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2024] [Revised: 04/05/2024] [Accepted: 04/11/2024] [Indexed: 05/07/2024]
Abstract
In contrast to a tungsten nitrido complex endowed with a tripodal silanolate ligand framework, which was reported in the literature to be a dimeric species with a metallacyclic core, the corresponding molybdenum nitrides 3 are monomeric entities comprising a regular terminal nitride unit, as proven by single-crystal X-ray diffraction (SC-XRD). Their electronic character is largely determined by the constraints imposed on the metal center by the podand ligand architecture. 95Mo nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and, to a lesser extent, 14N NMR spectroscopy allow these effects to be studied, which become particularly apparent upon comparison with the spectral data of related molybdenum nitrides comprising unrestrained silanolate, alkoxide, or amide ligands. Attempted nitrogen atom transfer from these novel terminal nitrides to [(tBuArN)3Mo] (Ar = 3,5-dimethylphenyl) as the potential acceptor stopped at the stage of unsymmetric dimolybdenum μ-nitrido complex 13a as the first intermediate along the reaction pathway. SC-XRD, NMR, electron paramagnetic resonance, and ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy as well as magnetometry in combination with density functional theory allowed a clear picture of the geometric and electronic structure of this mixed-valent species to be drawn. 13a is formally best described as an adduct of the type [(Mo[O])+III-(μN)-III-(Mo[N])+VI], S = 1/2 complex with (Mo[O])+III in the low-spin configuration, whereas related complexes such as [(AdS)3Mo-(μN)-Mo(NtBuAr)3] (19; Ad = 1-adamantyl) have previously been regarded in the literature as mixed-valent Mo+IV/Mo+V species. The spin population at the two Mo centers is uneven and notably larger at the more reduced Mo[O] atom, whereas the only spin present at the (μN) bridge is derived from spin polarization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Rütter
- Max-Planck-Institut
für Kohlenforschung, 45470 Mülheim/Ruhr, Germany
| | | | - Markus Leutzsch
- Max-Planck-Institut
für Kohlenforschung, 45470 Mülheim/Ruhr, Germany
| | - Nils Nöthling
- Max-Planck-Institut
für Kohlenforschung, 45470 Mülheim/Ruhr, Germany
| | - Daniel SantaLucia
- Max-Planck-Institut
für Chemische Energiekonversion, 45470 Mülheim/Ruhr, Germany
| | - Frank Neese
- Max-Planck-Institut
für Kohlenforschung, 45470 Mülheim/Ruhr, Germany
| | - Alois Fürstner
- Max-Planck-Institut
für Kohlenforschung, 45470 Mülheim/Ruhr, Germany
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3
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Almquist CC, Rajeshkumar T, Jayaweera HDAC, Removski N, Zhou W, Gelfand BS, Maron L, Piers WE. Oxidation-induced ambiphilicity triggers N-N bond formation and dinitrogen release in octahedral terminal molybdenum(v) nitrido complexes. Chem Sci 2024; 15:5152-5162. [PMID: 38577349 PMCID: PMC10988598 DOI: 10.1039/d4sc00090k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2024] [Accepted: 02/16/2024] [Indexed: 04/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Coupling of octahedral, terminal d1 molybdenum(v) nitrido complexes supported by a dianionic pentadentate ligand via N-N bond formation to give μ-dinitrogen complexes was found to be thermodynamically feasible but faces significant kinetic barriers. However, upon oxidation, a kinetically favored nucleophilic/electrophilic N-N bond forming mechanism was enabled to give monocationic μ-dinitrogen dimers. Computational and experimental evidence for this "oxidation-induced ambiphilic nitrido coupling" mechanism is presented. The factors influencing release of dinitrogen from the resulting μ-dinitrogen dimers were also probed and it was found that further oxidation to a dicationic species is required to induce (very rapid) loss of dinitrogen. The mechanistic path discovered for N-N bond formation and dinitrogen release follows an ECECC sequence (E = "electrochemical step"; C = "chemical step"). Experimental evidence for the intermediacy of a highly electrophilic, cationic d0 molybdenum(vi) nitrido in the N-N bond forming mechanism via trapping with an isonitrile reagent is also discussed. Together these results are relevant to the development of molecular catalysts capable of mediating ammonia oxidation to dihydrogen and dinitrogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Christopher Almquist
- Department of Chemistry, University of Calgary 2500 University Drive NW Calgary Alberta T2N 1N4 Canada
| | | | - H D A Chathumal Jayaweera
- Department of Chemistry, University of Calgary 2500 University Drive NW Calgary Alberta T2N 1N4 Canada
| | - Nicole Removski
- Department of Chemistry, University of Calgary 2500 University Drive NW Calgary Alberta T2N 1N4 Canada
| | - Wen Zhou
- Department of Chemistry, University of Calgary 2500 University Drive NW Calgary Alberta T2N 1N4 Canada
| | - Benjamin S Gelfand
- Department of Chemistry, University of Calgary 2500 University Drive NW Calgary Alberta T2N 1N4 Canada
| | - Laurent Maron
- LPCNO, Université de Toulouse, INSA UPS Toulouse France
| | - Warren E Piers
- Department of Chemistry, University of Calgary 2500 University Drive NW Calgary Alberta T2N 1N4 Canada
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4
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Wu L, Li Q, Dang K, Tang D, Chen C, Zhang Y, Zhao J. Highly Selective Ammonia Oxidation on BiVO 4 Photoanodes Co-catalyzed by Trace Amounts of Copper Ions. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2024; 63:e202316218. [PMID: 38069527 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202316218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2023] [Indexed: 12/20/2023]
Abstract
High-efficient photoelectrocatalytic direct ammonia oxidation reaction (AOR) conducted on semiconductor photoanodes remains a substantial challenge. Herein, we develop a strategy of simply introducing ppm levels of Cu ions (0.5-10 mg/L) into NH3 solutions to significantly improve the AOR photocurrent of bare BiVO4 photoanodes from 3.4 to 6.3 mA cm-2 at 1.23 VRHE , being close to the theoretical maximum photocurrent of BiVO4 (7.5 mA cm-2 ). The surface charge-separation efficiency has reached 90 % under a low bias of 0.8 VRHE . This AOR exhibits a high Faradaic efficiency (FE) of 93.8 % with the water oxidation reaction (WOR) being greatly suppressed. N2 is the main AOR product with FEs of 71.1 % in aqueous solutions and FEs of 100 % in non-aqueous solutions. Through mechanistic studies, we find that the formation of Cu-NH3 complexes possesses preferential adsorption on BiVO4 surfaces and efficiently competes with WOR. Meanwhile, the cooperation of BiVO4 surface effect and Cu-induced coordination effect activates N-H bonds and accelerates the first rate-limiting proton-coupled electron transfer for AOR. This simple strategy is further extended to other photoanodes and electrocatalysts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Wu
- Key Laboratory of Photochemistry, Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, P. R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, P. R. China
| | - Qianqian Li
- Key Laboratory of Photochemistry, Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, P. R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, P. R. China
| | - Kun Dang
- Key Laboratory of Photochemistry, Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, P. R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, P. R. China
| | - Daojian Tang
- Key Laboratory of Photochemistry, Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, P. R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, P. R. China
| | - ChunCheng Chen
- Key Laboratory of Photochemistry, Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, P. R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, P. R. China
| | - Yuchao Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Photochemistry, Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, P. R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, P. R. China
| | - Jincai Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Photochemistry, Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, P. R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, P. R. China
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5
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Zhao L, Zhuang H, Zhang Y, Ma L, Xi Y, Lin X. Support Effect of Boron Nitride on the First N-H Bond Activation of NH 3 on Ru Clusters. Molecules 2024; 29:328. [PMID: 38257242 PMCID: PMC10818564 DOI: 10.3390/molecules29020328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2023] [Revised: 01/05/2024] [Accepted: 01/06/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Support effect is an important issue in heterogeneous catalysis, while the explicit role of a catalytic support is often unclear for catalytic reactions. A systematic density functional theory computational study is reported in this paper to elucidate the effect of a model boron nitride (BN) support on the first N-H bond activation step of NH3 on Run (n = 1, 2, 3) metal clusters. Geometry optimizations and energy calculations were carried out using density functional theory (DFT) calculation for intermediates and transition states from the starting materials undergoing the N-H activation process. The primary findings are summarized as follows. The involvement of the model BN support does not significantly alter the equilibrium structure of intermediates and transition states in the most favorable pathway (MFP). Moreover, the involvement of BN support decreases the free energy of activation, ΔG≠, thus improving the reaction rate constant. This improvement is more obvious at high temperatures like 673 K than low temperatures like 298 K. The BN support effect leading to the ΔG≠ decrease is most significant for the single Ru atom case among all three cases studied. Finally, the involvement of the model BN may change the spin transition behavior of the reaction system during the N-H bond activation process. All these findings provide a deeper insight into the support effect on the N-H bond activation of NH3 for the supported Ru catalyst in particular and for supported transition metal catalysts in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Zhao
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, China University of Petroleum (East China), Qingdao 266580, China; (L.Z.); (Y.Z.); (L.M.); (Y.X.)
| | - Huimin Zhuang
- Shandong Yellow Sea Institute of Science and Technology Innovation, Rizhao 276808, China;
| | - Yixuan Zhang
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, China University of Petroleum (East China), Qingdao 266580, China; (L.Z.); (Y.Z.); (L.M.); (Y.X.)
| | - Lishuang Ma
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, China University of Petroleum (East China), Qingdao 266580, China; (L.Z.); (Y.Z.); (L.M.); (Y.X.)
| | - Yanyan Xi
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, China University of Petroleum (East China), Qingdao 266580, China; (L.Z.); (Y.Z.); (L.M.); (Y.X.)
- Advanced Chemical Engineering and Energy Materials Research Center, China University of Petroleum (East China), Qingdao 266580, China
| | - Xufeng Lin
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, China University of Petroleum (East China), Qingdao 266580, China; (L.Z.); (Y.Z.); (L.M.); (Y.X.)
- State Key Laboratory of Heavy Oil Processing, China University of Petroleum (East China), Qingdao 266580, China
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6
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Chen CP, Alharbi W, Cundari TR, Hamann TW, Smith MR. Deciphering the Mechanism of Base-Triggered Conversion of Ammonia to Molecular Nitrogen and Methylamine to Cyanide. J Am Chem Soc 2023; 145:26339-26349. [PMID: 38011890 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.3c09879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2023]
Abstract
We report an in-depth investigation into the ammonia oxidation mechanism by the catalyst [RuIII(tpy)(dmabpy)NH3]3+ ([Ru(NH3)]3+). Stoichiometric reactions of [Ru(NH3)]3+ were carried out with exogenous noncoordinating bases to trigger a proposed redox disproportionation reaction, which was followed using variable-temperature NMR spectroscopy. An intermediate species was identified as a dinitrogen-bridged complex using 15N NMR and Raman spectroscopy on isotopically labeled complexes. This intermediate is proposed to derive from coupling of nitridyl species formed upon sequential redox disproportion reactions. Acetonitrile displaces the dinitrogen bridge to yield free N2. DFT calculations support this lower-energy pathway versus that previously reported for ammonia oxidation by the parent [RuIII(tpy)(bpy)NH3]3+ complex. These experimental and computational results are consistent with the interpretation of redox disproportionation involving sequential hydrogen atom transfer reactions by an amide/aminyl intermediate, [Ru(NH2)-]+ ⇔ [Ru(NH2)•]+, formed upon deprotonation of the parent complex. Control experiments employing a large excess of ammonia as a base indicate this new proposed lower-energy pathway contributes to the oxidation of ammonia to dinitrogen in conditions relevant to electrocatalysis. In addition, analogous methylamine complexes, [Ru(NH2CH3)]2+/3+, were prepared to further test the proposed mechanism. Treating [Ru(NH2CH3)]3+ with a base cleanly yields two products [Ru(NH2CH3)]2+ and [Ru(CN)]+ in an ∼3:1 ratio, fully consistent with the proposed cascade of hydrogen atom transfer reactions by an intermediate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chuan-Pin Chen
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan State University, 578 S Shaw Ln, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, United States
| | - Waad Alharbi
- Department of Chemistry, Center of Advanced Scientific Computing and Modeling (CASCaM), University of North Texas, 1155 Union Circle, #305070, Denton, Texas 76203-5017, United States
| | - Thomas R Cundari
- Department of Chemistry, Center of Advanced Scientific Computing and Modeling (CASCaM), University of North Texas, 1155 Union Circle, #305070, Denton, Texas 76203-5017, United States
| | - Thomas W Hamann
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan State University, 578 S Shaw Ln, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, United States
| | - Milton R Smith
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan State University, 578 S Shaw Ln, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, United States
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7
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Alférez MG, Moreno JJ, Maya C, Campos J. Polarized Au(I)/Rh(I) bimetallic pairs cooperatively trigger ligand non-innocence and bond activation. Dalton Trans 2023; 52:3835-3845. [PMID: 36866716 PMCID: PMC10029337 DOI: 10.1039/d3dt00410d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2023] [Accepted: 02/21/2023] [Indexed: 02/24/2023]
Abstract
The combination of molecular metallic fragments of contrasting Lewis character offers many possibilities for cooperative bond activation and for the disclosure of unusual reactivity. Here we provide a systematic investigation on the partnership of Lewis basic Rh(I) compounds of type [(η5-L)Rh(PR3)2] (η5-L = (C5Me5)- or (C9H7)-) with highly congested Lewis acidic Au(I) species. For the cyclopentadienyl Rh(I) compounds, we demonstrate the non-innocent role of the typically robust (C5Me5)- ligand through migration of a hydride to the Rh site and provide evidence for the direct implication of the gold fragment in this unusual bimetallic ligand activation event. This process competes with the formation of dinuclear Lewis adducts defined by a dative Rh → Au bond, with selectivity being under kinetic control and tunable by modifying the stereoelectronic and chelating properties of the phosphine ligands bound to the two metals. We provide a thorough computational study on the unusual Cp* non-innocent behavior and the divergent bimetallic pathways observed. The cooperative FLP-type reactivity of all bimetallic pairs has been investigated and computationally examined for the case of N-H bond activation in ammonia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Macarena G Alférez
- Instituto de Investigaciones Químicas (IIQ), Departamento de Química Inorgánica and Centro de Innovación en Química Avanzada (ORFEO-CINQA), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC) and University of Sevilla, Avenida Américo Vespucio 49, 41092 Sevilla, Spain.
| | - Juan J Moreno
- Instituto de Investigaciones Químicas (IIQ), Departamento de Química Inorgánica and Centro de Innovación en Química Avanzada (ORFEO-CINQA), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC) and University of Sevilla, Avenida Américo Vespucio 49, 41092 Sevilla, Spain.
| | - Celia Maya
- Instituto de Investigaciones Químicas (IIQ), Departamento de Química Inorgánica and Centro de Innovación en Química Avanzada (ORFEO-CINQA), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC) and University of Sevilla, Avenida Américo Vespucio 49, 41092 Sevilla, Spain.
| | - Jesús Campos
- Instituto de Investigaciones Químicas (IIQ), Departamento de Química Inorgánica and Centro de Innovación en Química Avanzada (ORFEO-CINQA), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC) and University of Sevilla, Avenida Américo Vespucio 49, 41092 Sevilla, Spain.
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Beh DW, Cuellar De Lucio AJ, del Rosal I, Maron L, Spasyuk D, Gelfand BS, Li JB, Piers WE. Organotitanium Complexes Supported by a Dianionic Pentadentate Ligand. Organometallics 2023. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.organomet.2c00609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel W. Beh
- Department of Chemistry, University of Calgary, 2500 University Drive NW, Calgary, Alberta T2N 1N4, Canada
| | | | - Iker del Rosal
- LPCNO, Université de Toulouse, INSA, UPS, LPCNO, 135 avenue de Rangueil, F-31077 Toulouse, France
- CNRS, LPCNO, F-31077 Toulouse, France
| | - Laurent Maron
- LPCNO, Université de Toulouse, INSA, UPS, LPCNO, 135 avenue de Rangueil, F-31077 Toulouse, France
- CNRS, LPCNO, F-31077 Toulouse, France
| | - Denis Spasyuk
- Canadian Light Source Inc., 44 Innovation Boulevard, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 2V3, Canada
| | - Benjamin S. Gelfand
- Department of Chemistry, University of Calgary, 2500 University Drive NW, Calgary, Alberta T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - Jian-Bin Li
- Department of Chemistry, University of Calgary, 2500 University Drive NW, Calgary, Alberta T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - Warren E. Piers
- Department of Chemistry, University of Calgary, 2500 University Drive NW, Calgary, Alberta T2N 1N4, Canada
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Cypcar AD, Kerr TA, Yang JY. Thermochemical Studies of Nickel Hydride Complexes with Cationic Ligands in Aqueous and Organic Solvents. Organometallics 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.organomet.2c00319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew D. Cypcar
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, California 92697, United States
| | - Tyler A. Kerr
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, California 92697, United States
| | - Jenny Y. Yang
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, California 92697, United States
- Physical Sciences Division, Physical and Computational Sciences Directorate, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington 99354, United States
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