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Pšeničnik A, Slemc L, Avbelj M, Tome M, Šala M, Herron P, Shmatkov M, Petek M, Baebler Š, Mrak P, Hranueli D, Starčević A, Hunter IS, Petković H. Oxytetracycline hyper-production through targeted genome reduction of Streptomyces rimosus. mSystems 2024; 9:e0025024. [PMID: 38564716 PMCID: PMC11097637 DOI: 10.1128/msystems.00250-24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2024] [Accepted: 03/07/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Most biosynthetic gene clusters (BGC) encoding the synthesis of important microbial secondary metabolites, such as antibiotics, are either silent or poorly expressed; therefore, to ensure a strong pipeline of novel antibiotics, there is a need to develop rapid and efficient strain development approaches. This study uses comparative genome analysis to instruct rational strain improvement, using Streptomyces rimosus, the producer of the important antibiotic oxytetracycline (OTC) as a model system. Sequencing of the genomes of two industrial strains M4018 and R6-500, developed independently from a common ancestor, identified large DNA rearrangements located at the chromosome end. We evaluated the effect of these genome deletions on the parental S. rimosus Type Strain (ATCC 10970) genome where introduction of a 145 kb deletion close to the OTC BGC in the Type Strain resulted in massive OTC overproduction, achieving titers that were equivalent to M4018 and R6-500. Transcriptome data supported the hypothesis that the reason for such an increase in OTC biosynthesis was due to enhanced transcription of the OTC BGC and not due to enhanced substrate supply. We also observed changes in the expression of other cryptic BGCs; some metabolites, undetectable in ATCC 10970, were now produced at high titers. This study demonstrated for the first time that the main force behind BGC overexpression is genome rearrangement. This new approach demonstrates great potential to activate cryptic gene clusters of yet unexplored natural products of medical and industrial value.IMPORTANCEThere is a critical need to develop novel antibiotics to combat antimicrobial resistance. Streptomyces species are very rich source of antibiotics, typically encoding 20-60 biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs). However, under laboratory conditions, most are either silent or poorly expressed so that their products are only detectable at nanogram quantities, which hampers drug development efforts. To address this subject, we used comparative genome analysis of industrial Streptomyces rimosus strains producing high titers of a broad spectrum antibiotic oxytetracycline (OTC), developed during decades of industrial strain improvement. Interestingly, large-scale chromosomal deletions were observed. Based on this information, we carried out targeted genome deletions in the native strain S. rimosus ATCC 10970, and we show that a targeted deletion in the vicinity of the OTC BGC significantly induced expression of the OTC BGC, as well as some other silent BGCs, thus suggesting that this approach may be a useful way to identify new natural products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alen Pšeničnik
- Chair of Biotechnology, Microbiology and Food Safety, University of Ljubljana Biotechnical Faculty, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Lucija Slemc
- Chair of Biotechnology, Microbiology and Food Safety, University of Ljubljana Biotechnical Faculty, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Martina Avbelj
- Chair of Biotechnology, Microbiology and Food Safety, University of Ljubljana Biotechnical Faculty, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Miha Tome
- Chair of Biotechnology, Microbiology and Food Safety, University of Ljubljana Biotechnical Faculty, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Martin Šala
- National Institute of Chemistry, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Paul Herron
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Maksym Shmatkov
- Faculty of Food Technology and Biotechnology, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
- Educational and Scientific Institute of High Technologies, Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv, Kyiv, Ukraine
| | - Marko Petek
- Department of Biotechnology and Systems Biology, National Institute of Biology, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Špela Baebler
- Department of Biotechnology and Systems Biology, National Institute of Biology, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Peter Mrak
- Antiinfectives, Sandoz, Mengeš, Slovenia
| | - Daslav Hranueli
- Faculty of Food Technology and Biotechnology, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Antonio Starčević
- Faculty of Food Technology and Biotechnology, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Iain S. Hunter
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Hrvoje Petković
- Chair of Biotechnology, Microbiology and Food Safety, University of Ljubljana Biotechnical Faculty, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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Lee DY, Kim J, Lee GS, Park S, Song J, Lee BS, Lee SR, Kim KH, Kim CS. Characterization of Chemical Interactions between Clinical Drugs and the Oral Bacterium, Corynebacterium matruchotii, via Bioactivity-HiTES. ACS Chem Biol 2024; 19:973-980. [PMID: 38514380 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.3c00798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/23/2024]
Abstract
In the field of natural product research, the rediscovery of already-known compounds is one of the significant issues hindering new drug development. Recently, an innovative approach called bioactivity-HiTES has been developed to overcome this limitation, and several new bioactive metabolites have been successfully characterized by this method. In this study, we applied bioactivity-HiTES to Corynebacterium matruchotii, the human oral bacterium, with 3120 clinical drugs as potential elicitors. As a result, we identified two cryptic metabolites, methylindole-3-acetate (MIAA) and indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), elicited by imidafenacin, a urinary antispasmodic drug approved by the Japanese Pharmaceuticals and Medical Devices Agency (PMDA). MIAA showed weak antibacterial activity against a pulmonary disease-causing Mycobacterium conceptionense with an IC50 value of 185.7 μM. Unexpectedly, we also found that C. matruchotii metabolized fludarabine phosphate, a USFDA-approved anticancer drug, to 2-fluoroadenine which displayed moderate antibacterial activity against both Bacillus subtilis and Escherichia coli, with IC50 values of 8.9 and 20.1 μM, respectively. Finally, acelarin, a prodrug of the anticancer drug gemcitabine, was found to exhibit unreported antibacterial activity against B. subtilis with an IC50 value of 33.6 μM through the bioactivity-HiTES method as well. These results indicate that bioactivity-HiTES can also be applied to discover biotransformed products in addition to finding cryptic metabolites in microbes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Da Yeong Lee
- Department of Biopharmaceutical Convergence, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Jonghwan Kim
- Department of Biopharmaceutical Convergence, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Gyu Sung Lee
- Department of Biopharmaceutical Convergence, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Sehwan Park
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Jeongwon Song
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Bum Soo Lee
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Seoung Rak Lee
- College of Pharmacy and Research Institute for Drug Development, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - Ki Hyun Kim
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Chung Sub Kim
- Department of Biopharmaceutical Convergence, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
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3
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Li H, Ding W, Zhang Q. Discovery and engineering of ribosomally synthesized and post-translationally modified peptide (RiPP) natural products. RSC Chem Biol 2024; 5:90-108. [PMID: 38333193 PMCID: PMC10849128 DOI: 10.1039/d3cb00172e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2023] [Accepted: 11/17/2023] [Indexed: 02/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Ribosomally synthesized and post-translationally modified peptides (RiPPs) represent a diverse superfamily of natural products with immense potential for drug development. This review provides a concise overview of the recent advances in the discovery of RiPP natural products, focusing on rational strategies such as bioactivity guided screening, enzyme or precursor-based genome mining, and biosynthetic engineering. The challenges associated with activating silent biosynthetic gene clusters and the development of elaborate catalytic systems are also discussed. The logical frameworks emerging from these research studies offer valuable insights into RiPP biosynthesis and engineering, paving the way for broader pharmaceutic applications of these peptide natural products.
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Affiliation(s)
- He Li
- Department of Chemistry, Fudan University Shanghai 200433 China
| | - Wei Ding
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, School of Life Sciences & Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Shanghai 200240 China
| | - Qi Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, Fudan University Shanghai 200433 China
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Pongen YL, Thirumurugan D, Ramasubburayan R, Prakash S. Harnessing actinobacteria potential for cancer prevention and treatment. Microb Pathog 2023; 183:106324. [PMID: 37633504 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2023.106324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2023] [Revised: 08/23/2023] [Accepted: 08/23/2023] [Indexed: 08/28/2023]
Abstract
Actinobacteria are gram-positive bacteria with high G:C ratio in their genetic makeup. They have been noted and studied for their capacity to produce bioactive substances with a range of uses in human health, and they also exhibit a unique property of adapting to extreme environments quite well. Actinobacteria may play an essential role in cancer prevention and treatment due to their synthesis of anticancer compounds, as indicated by recent studies. The aim of this review is to give a summary of what is currently known about the connection between actinobacteria and different types of cancer. This paper delineates the diverse array of actinobacterial bioactive compounds possessing anticancer properties, elucidates their mechanisms of action and explores potential applications in cancer treatment. Furthermore, this review highlights how the microbiome influences the onset and progression of cancer, as well as the discussing the potential benefits that actinobacteria may bring in terms of controlling the microbiome and contributing to the regulation of the tumour microenvironment to cure or prevent cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yimtar L Pongen
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Humanities, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur - 603 203, Chengalpattu District, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Durairaj Thirumurugan
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Humanities, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur - 603 203, Chengalpattu District, Tamil Nadu, India.
| | - Ramasamy Ramasubburayan
- Department of Prosthodontics, Saveetha Dental College and Hospitals, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences (SIMATS), Saveetha University, Chennai - 600 077, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Santhiyagu Prakash
- Marine Biotechnology Laboratory, Department of Basic Sciences, Institute of Fisheries Post Graduate Studies, (OMR Campus), Tamilnadu Dr. J. Jayalalithaa Fisheries University, Vaniyanchavadi, Chennai - 603 103, Tamil Nadu, India.
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Ding W, Tian D, Chen M, Xia Z, Tang X, Zhang S, Wei J, Li X, Yao X, Wu B, Tang J. Molecular Networking-Guided Isolation of Cyclopentapeptides from the Hydrothermal Vent Sediment Derived Fungus Aspergillus pseudoviridinutans TW58-5 and Their Anti-inflammatory Effects. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2023; 86:1919-1930. [PMID: 37368370 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.3c00287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/28/2023]
Abstract
Repetitive isolation of known compounds remains a major challenge in natural-product-based drug discovery. LC-MS/MS-based molecular networking has become a highly efficient strategy for the discovery of new natural products from complex mixtures. Herein, we report a molecular networking-guided isolation procedure, which resulted in the discovery of seven new cyclopentapeptides, namely, pseudoviridinutans A-F (1-7), from the marine-derived fungus Aspergillus pseudoviridinutans TW58-5. Compounds 1-7 feature a rare amino acid moiety, O,β-dimethyltyrosine, observed for the first time from a marine-derived fungus. The planar structures of 1-7 were elucidated by detailed analyses of IR, UV, HR ESI-Q-TOF MS, and 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopic data. Meanwhile, their absolute configurations were determined through a combination of Marfey's method and X-ray diffraction. Subsequent bioassay revealed the anti-inflammation potential of 1-7, especially 6, which inhibited the production of nitric oxide (NO), a vital inflammatory mediator, in LPS-induced murine macrophage RAW264.7 cells by regulating the expression level of NLRP3 and iNOS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjuan Ding
- School of Traditional Chinese Materia Medica, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, Liaoning, China
| | - Danmei Tian
- Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine and Natural Products, College of Pharmacy/Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Pharmacodynamic Constituents of Traditional Chinese Medicine and New Drug Research/International Cooperative Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Medicine Modernization and Innovative Drug Development of Ministry of Education (MOE) of China, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Mei Chen
- Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine and Natural Products, College of Pharmacy/Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Pharmacodynamic Constituents of Traditional Chinese Medicine and New Drug Research/International Cooperative Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Medicine Modernization and Innovative Drug Development of Ministry of Education (MOE) of China, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Zixuan Xia
- Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine and Natural Products, College of Pharmacy/Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Pharmacodynamic Constituents of Traditional Chinese Medicine and New Drug Research/International Cooperative Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Medicine Modernization and Innovative Drug Development of Ministry of Education (MOE) of China, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Xiyang Tang
- Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine and Natural Products, College of Pharmacy/Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Pharmacodynamic Constituents of Traditional Chinese Medicine and New Drug Research/International Cooperative Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Medicine Modernization and Innovative Drug Development of Ministry of Education (MOE) of China, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Sihao Zhang
- Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine and Natural Products, College of Pharmacy/Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Pharmacodynamic Constituents of Traditional Chinese Medicine and New Drug Research/International Cooperative Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Medicine Modernization and Innovative Drug Development of Ministry of Education (MOE) of China, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Jihua Wei
- Ocean College, Zhejiang University, Zhoushan Campus, Zhoushan 316021, China
| | - Xunuo Li
- Ocean College, Zhejiang University, Zhoushan Campus, Zhoushan 316021, China
| | - Xinsheng Yao
- School of Traditional Chinese Materia Medica, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, Liaoning, China
| | - Bin Wu
- Ocean College, Zhejiang University, Zhoushan Campus, Zhoushan 316021, China
| | - Jinshan Tang
- Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine and Natural Products, College of Pharmacy/Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Pharmacodynamic Constituents of Traditional Chinese Medicine and New Drug Research/International Cooperative Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Medicine Modernization and Innovative Drug Development of Ministry of Education (MOE) of China, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
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Han EJ, Lee SR, Townsend CA, Seyedsayamdost MR. Targeted Discovery of Cryptic Enediyne Natural Products via FRET-Coupled High-Throughput Elicitor Screening. ACS Chem Biol 2023; 18:1854-1862. [PMID: 37463302 PMCID: PMC11062413 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.3c00281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/20/2023]
Abstract
Enediyne antibiotics are a striking family of DNA-cleaving natural products with high degrees of cytotoxicity and structural complexity. Microbial genome sequences, which have recently accumulated, point to an untapped trove of "cryptic" enediynes. Most of the cognate biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) are sparingly expressed under standard growth conditions, making it difficult to characterize their products. Herein, we report a fluorescence-based DNA cleavage assay coupled with high-throughput elicitor screening for the rapid, targeted discovery of cryptic enediyne metabolites. We applied the approach to Streptomyces clavuligerus, which harbors two such BGCs with unknown products, identified steroids as effective elicitors, and characterized 10 cryptic enediyne-derived natural products, termed clavulynes A-J with unusual carbonate and terminal olefin functionalities, with one of these congeners matching the recently reported jejucarboside. Our results contribute to the growing repertoire of enediynes and provide a blueprint for identifying additional ones in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther J Han
- Department of Chemistry, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, United States
| | - Seoung Rak Lee
- Department of Chemistry, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, United States
| | - Craig A Townsend
- Department of Chemistry, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland 21218, United States
| | - Mohammad R Seyedsayamdost
- Department of Chemistry, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, United States
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, United States
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Boruta T, Ścigaczewska A, Ruda A, Bizukojć M. Effects of the Coculture Initiation Method on the Production of Secondary Metabolites in Bioreactor Cocultures of Penicillium rubens and Streptomyces rimosus. Molecules 2023; 28:6044. [PMID: 37630296 PMCID: PMC10458595 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28166044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2023] [Revised: 08/01/2023] [Accepted: 08/10/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Bioreactor cocultures involving Penicillium rubens and Streptomyces rimosus were investigated with regard to secondary metabolite production, morphological development, dissolved oxygen levels, and carbon substrate utilization. The production profiles of 22 secondary metabolites were analyzed, including penicillin G and oxytetracycline. Three inoculation approaches were tested, i.e., the simultaneous inoculation of P. rubens with S. rimosus and the inoculation of S. rimosus delayed by 24 or 48 h relative to P. rubens. The delayed inoculation of S. rimosus into the P. rubens culture did not prevent the actinomycete from proliferating and displaying its biosynthetic repertoire. Although a period of prolonged adaptation was needed, S. rimosus exhibited growth and the production of secondary metabolites regardless of the chosen delay period (24 or 48 h). This promising method of coculture initiation resulted in increased levels of metabolites tentatively identified as rimocidin B, 2-methylthio-cis-zeatin, chrysogine, benzylpenicilloic acid, and preaustinoid D relative to the values recorded for the monocultures. This study demonstrates the usefulness of the delayed inoculation approach in uncovering the metabolic landscape of filamentous microorganisms and altering the levels of secondary metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomasz Boruta
- Department of Bioprocess Engineering, Faculty of Process and Environmental Engineering, Lodz University of Technology, ul. Wolczanska 213, 93-005 Lodz, Poland
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Baranova AA, Alferova VA, Korshun VA, Tyurin AP. Modern Trends in Natural Antibiotic Discovery. Life (Basel) 2023; 13:life13051073. [PMID: 37240718 DOI: 10.3390/life13051073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2023] [Revised: 04/10/2023] [Accepted: 04/21/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Natural scaffolds remain an important basis for drug development. Therefore, approaches to natural bioactive compound discovery attract significant attention. In this account, we summarize modern and emerging trends in the screening and identification of natural antibiotics. The methods are divided into three large groups: approaches based on microbiology, chemistry, and molecular biology. The scientific potential of the methods is illustrated with the most prominent and recent results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna A Baranova
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Miklukho-Maklaya 16/10, 117997 Moscow, Russia
- Gause Institute of New Antibiotics, Bolshaya Pirogovskaya 11, 119021 Moscow, Russia
| | - Vera A Alferova
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Miklukho-Maklaya 16/10, 117997 Moscow, Russia
- Gause Institute of New Antibiotics, Bolshaya Pirogovskaya 11, 119021 Moscow, Russia
| | - Vladimir A Korshun
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Miklukho-Maklaya 16/10, 117997 Moscow, Russia
| | - Anton P Tyurin
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Miklukho-Maklaya 16/10, 117997 Moscow, Russia
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Alwali AY, Parkinson EI. Small molecule inducers of actinobacteria natural product biosynthesis. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 2023; 50:kuad019. [PMID: 37587009 PMCID: PMC10549211 DOI: 10.1093/jimb/kuad019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2023] [Accepted: 08/14/2023] [Indexed: 08/18/2023]
Abstract
Actinobacteria are a large and diverse group of bacteria that are known to produce a wide range of secondary metabolites, many of which have important biological activities, including antibiotics, anti-cancer agents, and immunosuppressants. The biosynthesis of these compounds is often highly regulated with many natural products (NPs) being produced at very low levels in laboratory settings. Environmental factors, such as small molecule elicitors, can induce the production of secondary metabolites. Specifically, they can increase titers of known NPs as well as enabling discovery of novel NPs typically produced at undetectable levels. These elicitors can be NPs, including antibiotics or hormones, or synthetic compounds. In recent years, there has been a growing interest in the use of small molecule elicitors to induce the production of secondary metabolites from actinobacteria, especially for the discovery of NPs from "silent" biosynthetic gene clusters. This review aims to highlight classes of molecules that induce secondary metabolite production in actinobacteria and to describe the potential mechanisms of induction. ONE-SENTENCE SUMMARY This review describes chemical elicitors of actinobacteria natural products described to date and the proposed mechanisms of induction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amir Y Alwali
- Department of Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Elizabeth I Parkinson
- Department of Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
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