Are Anatomy PhDs Nearing Extinction or Adapting to Change? United States Graduate Education Trends in the Anatomical Sciences

Who is teaching anatomy? An examination of the demographic characteristics, academic backgrounds, and professional responsibilities of US anatomy teachers

Given the demand for anatomy instruction, it is imperative to understand the current cohort of anatomy teachers. This study aimed to delineate the demographic characteristics, academic backgrounds, and professional responsibilities of United States (U.S.) anatomy teachers. A survey was sent to teachers who were identified by their professional membership profiles. Results from 654 responses indicated that 45% of respondents identified as female and 67% identified as white. Most (68%) respondents had an academic doctoral degree. On average, respondents had completed graduate coursework in approximately half of the traditional anatomical sciences subdisciplines. However, approximately 40% of respondents with graduate/professional teaching responsibilities lacked graduate coursework in histology, neuroanatomy, and/or embryology, while approximately 70% of respondents without graduate/professional teaching responsibilities lacked similar coursework. Survey participants reported an assigned time effort of 58% teaching, 16% research, 10% service, and 10% administration and a perceived time effort of 56% teaching, 13% research, 10% service, and 12% administration. Perceived and assigned time efforts were significantly different (p ≤ 0.04) for administrative, research, and teaching responsibilities. Significant differences (p ≤ 0.03) also existed amongst participants regarding assigned administrative and teaching time effort and perceived administrative, service, and teaching time effort. Given these findings, we are concerned about protected research time for and the subdiscipline education of anatomy teachers. As such, we provide potential solutions for increasing protected research time and pursuing additional subdiscipline education. We also speculate about the potential impact of the now decades-long anatomy educator shortage on anatomy teacher responsibilities.

"Spine to the future"-A narrative review of anatomy engagement

Anatomy has been integral to medical and health education for centuries, it has also had a significant role in wider public life, as an educational resource, a link to their health, and also as a darker deterrent. Historically, public engagement in anatomy is hallmarked by public dissections of convicted criminals across the globe. Artists, specifically non-medical men, such as Leonardo da Vinci, are reported to have participated in public dissection. Dissection would later rekindle public interest in anatomy as graverobbing led to the reform and regulation of anatomy in many countries. In recent years, there has been growing interest from the public in learning more about their bodies as health and well-being become of paramount importance, particularly following the COVID-19 pandemic. Anatomy sits in a prime position to direct and instigate conversations around health, well-being, and body image. Every human on earth possesses a perfect resource to look at and learn about. Models, art-based anatomical activities, and crafts provide active learning opportunities for the wider public around anatomy. Most recently, apps, games, and extended reality provide novel and insightful learning opportunities for the public relating to the body. Finally, training and resources must also be made available from institutions and professional bodies to anatomists to enable them to deliver engagement in an already congested and educationally heavy schedule. This resurgence of interest in anatomical public engagement sees anatomy re-enter the public spotlight, with more appropriate resources and educational settings to offer engagement with the aim of benefiting the public.

Graduate anatomy education: How are we training the future generations of anatomy educators?

The teaching of anatomy is relevant to many fields and anatomy teachers are in demand. Individuals with a graduate anatomy education are some of the most sought-after candidates to fill open teaching positions, but it is unclear as to what constitutes a graduate anatomy education. The purpose of this study was to investigate the components of a graduate anatomy education in the United States. A survey regarding the components of doctoral, master's, and graduate certificate programs was distributed to program directors and department chairs at 71 US institutions. Respondents indicated that there were 17 doctoral, 28 master's, and 9 graduate certificate programs. Students completed coursework in all the traditional anatomical subdisciplines in approximately half of doctoral (53%) and master's (57%) programs, though the number was lower in graduate certificate programs (22%). In comparison, within 12 programs (5 doctoral, 4 master's, and 3 graduate certificate) students were required to complete coursework in less than 2 anatomical subdisciplines. Required coursework outside the subdisciplines usually involved educational theories and practices (61% of programs), research methods (52% of programs), and/or physiology (37% of programs). Respondents indicated that most programs (81%) were designed to prepare their students to teach. It appears that graduate anatomy training likely involves gross anatomy coursework, coursework in another anatomical subdiscipline, and coursework in educational theories and practices. Given the likely decline in the number of doctoral-level anatomy programs from 21 to 19, serious consideration should be given to hiring teaching candidates with master's or graduate certificate training in anatomy.

The current state of anatomy education in United States doctor of physical therapy programs

Physical therapy education has significantly evolved over the past few decades. While gross anatomy is integral to physical therapy education curricula, the current state of anatomy education within these programs is not well understood. The primary purpose of this report was to provide an update on the current state of anatomy education across United States (US) Doctor of Physical Therapy (DPT) programs. A survey was disseminated to all 261 accredited US physical therapy programs. The survey was deployed in November 2020 with a deadline to respond by January 15, 2021. The response rate was 32.6% (85/261). When teaching anatomy, 90.5% of the responding programs used dissection, 71.4% used didactic lectures, 60.7% used computer-assisted technology, 58% used prosections, 23.8% used plastinated models, and 31% reported using other methods. DPT programs have experienced declines in PhD faculty (15.7%) and Master of Physical Therapy faculty (15.3%) and notable increases in DPT (16.5%) and physician faculty (8.2%) teaching anatomy within DPT programs. Despite greater use of computer-assisted technologies, these technologies have not replaced donor-based dissection in DPT programs.

Pulling back the curtain: Exploring norms and practices among a sample of anatomy-related departments in U.S. medical schools

Anatomy-related departments have access to comparative research productivity data (e.g., Blue Ridge Institute for Medical Research), yet no datasets exist for comparing departments' general practices pertinent to education-focused faculty. Practice trends in anatomy-related departments across U.S. medical schools were explored by surveying departmental leaders. The survey inquired about: (i) faculty time allocations, (ii) anatomy teaching services, (iii) faculty labor distribution models, and (iv) faculty compensation practices. A nationally representative sample of 35 departments (of 194) responded to the survey. On average, anatomy educators are allotted 24% (median = 15%) protected time for research, irrespective of funding, 62% for teaching and course administration (median = 68%), 12% for service, and 2% for administration. Forty-four percent (15 of 34) of departments taught at least five different student populations, often across multiple colleges. Many departments (65%; 11 of 17) applied formulaic methods for determining faculty workloads, often as a function of course credits or contact hours. Average base salaries for assistant and associate professors reported by this survey were consistent (p ≥ 0.056) with national means (i.e., Association of American Medical Colleges Annual Faculty Salary Report). Merit-based increases and bonuses averaged 5% and 10% of faculty's salaries, respectively, when awarded. Cost-of-living increases averaged 3%. Overall, departments' workload and compensation practices vary widely, likely a consequence of different institutional cultures, locations, needs, and financial priorities. This sample dataset allows anatomy-related departments to compare and reflect upon their practices and competitiveness in recruiting and retaining faculty.

Payment with knowledge: A method for a training of anatomy near-peer teachers and formation of future anatomists

Near-peer teaching has been widely implemented in medical schools and the benefits for the near-peer teachers (NPTs), the students, and the institution have been well documented. However, NPT training methods and perceptions of such have been limited. A four-year clinical anatomy and surgical training program was established (est. 2019) as part of the continuous training timeline for NPTs (n > 60 total) formation at the Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, in Mexico. The program provides various training courses for the NPTs according to their hierarchy, including teaching skills, professional development, psychosocial aspects, and career objectives. A "Clinical Anatomy and Surgical Training Diploma" was planned with 12 modules to aid in developing these abilities, along with a higher understanding of clinical anatomy shared by expert clinical specialists, and diverse clinical and surgical skills such as suturing, catheterization, and basic surgical procedures. The program has a completion rate of approximately 15 NPTs/year. All, while creating an environment with a sense of belonging, and facilitating mentorship between fellow NPTs and educators. Near-peer teachers develop leadership, communication, and teaching skills. The program has provided a constant source of anatomy educators, avoiding any shortage.

Using Stereoscopic Virtual Presentation for Clinical Anatomy Instruction and Procedural Training in Medical Education

This chapter begins by exploring the current landscape of virtual and augmented reality technologies in a post-pandemic world and asserting the importance of virtual technologies that improve students' learning outcomes while also reducing costs. Next, the chapter describes clinical anatomy instruction concepts in medical education, including applied anatomy content knowledge, pedagogical anatomy content knowledge, and virtual stereoscopic visualization studies that exemplify these concept areas, respectively. The chapter then explores the concept of procedural training with a specific emphasis on virtual stereoscopic anatomy visualization studies that exemplify or have implications for procedural training in medical education. Subsequently, the chapter discusses the benefits and challenges as well as the potential future positive and negative implications of virtual stereoscopic visualizations in medical education before finally concluding with some pensive considerations for the present and future of anatomy education and training using virtual technologies.

How Virtual Animal Anatomy facilitated a successful transition to online instruction and supported student learning during the coronavirus pandemic

Anatomy faculty with cadaver-based laboratory courses were presented with a significant challenge in March 2020 to create equivalent learning experiences without cadaveric access. The undergraduate domestic animal anatomy course at the Colorado State University was halfway into a 16-week semester when COVID-19 lockdown orders and the transition to remote instruction began. The new course curriculum was critically evaluated using student surveys and course outcome data. Most students (92.5%) agreed that the transition to online learning was a success; however, students who valued face-to-face lectures prior to March were less likely to perceive the transition as a success. Qualitative and quantitative analyses of survey results suggest that the resources perceived as most helpful for the transition to online learning were not the same as those that helped facilitate animal anatomy learning. Most students (92.5%) agreed that the Virtual Animal Anatomy (VAA) helped them learn anatomy, and 82.2% indicated that the VAA was a valuable resource following the transition to online learning. Additional resources associated with transition success included course instructors, weekly quizzes, written descriptions of anatomical structures and open laboratory sessions. In contrast, those resources associated with facilitating learning included guided quizzes and asynchronous lecture recordings. These findings suggest that the VAA can support online anatomy learning when used in conjunction with other best practices for online teaching.

Job prospects and career pathways for human anatomy graduates from the University of Otago: Implications for student support and professional development

The Department of Anatomy (Anatomy) at the University of Otago delivers programs for students in diverse areas, including clinical anatomy, neuroscience, reproduction and biological anthropology. This study explored the experiences of alumni during their study and career pathways post-graduation through an online questionnaire distributed to department alumni. Most of the 190 participants studied anatomy as undergraduates (74.2%) and graduated in the past decade (56.8%). Reasons for taking anatomy included finding the topic interesting, a pathway into professional programs, or a degree requirement. Current employment differed between undergraduate (44.7% currently employed in clinical settings) and postgraduate alumni (26.4% currently employed in research, 19.5% in clinical settings). The main pathways for finding jobs were by direct search (38.6%), completing tertiary education (29.2%), and through social network connections (16.4%). Women alumni were less likely to feel that Anatomy prepared them for their careers than men. Themes related to positive and negative experiences included staff, course material/resources, social events, and peers. Suggestions to improve the departmental "sense of community" included increasing departmental events and resources. Alumni suggested that Anatomy should provide more potential career information, make available recent alumni profiles, and organize career fairs and networking opportunities. Postgraduate alumni were more likely to feel a "sense of belonging" in Anatomy than undergraduate alumni. Findings from this research provide an essential data point in the international evaluation of career prospects of anatomy graduates and provide a road map for other institutions to survey their alumni to obtain local insights.

Faculty retirements will likely exacerbate the anatomy educator shortage

Medical education has reported a shortage of anatomy educators since the 1960s. While the faculty pipeline has recently been explored, insights into retirement intentions, a key driver of faculty turnover, have yet to be investigated. With the mean age of anatomists rising, knowledge of retirement intentions among current educators is essential to understanding the anatomy educator shortage. This study explored the retirement intentions of current anatomy educators and their likely effects on the workforce. Surveys were distributed to department heads and the American Association for Anatomy (AAA) membership to inquire about job postings from 2018-2020 and retirement intentions, respectively. Department heads sought to fill open positions due to faculty retirements (36%, 15 of 42), faculty relocations/sabbaticals/new responsibilities (31%), and brand new positions (24%). The retirement intentions survey revealed that 61% (23 of 38) of faculty '55 and older' intend to retire within five years. Based on the extrapolation of AAA membership data, estimates suggest that almost twice as many anatomy faculty could retire per year (n = 40) over the next five years compared to the estimated number of annual PhD graduates (n = 22) likely to enter the workforce. Factors driving retirement intentions were overwhelmingly age and finances, followed by job satisfaction and family. The creation of new anatomy educator positions to address increased student enrollments and new health sciences programs is likely to place even greater strain on workforce demands.

A quality improvement apprenticeship: Gross anatomy in the time of Covid-19

The study of anatomy is a team-driven field in which anatomy instruction occurs in small groups in the laboratory with one faculty member guiding students through each anatomical region. One laboratory experience may include several small group instructors in one simultaneous learning session. In comparison, the education of future gross anatomists often happens in an apprenticeship model, where the optimal learning outcomes are met through training with an experienced mentor. It was the vision of the authors to further their education through initiating an inter-institutional exchange to apprentice with innovative mentors in order to bring new ideas back to their own gross anatomy courses. The Southeastern Conference, a consortium of the Universities in the Southern region of the United States often associated with intercollegiate sports, has a host of academic initiatives in addition to the athletic emphasis. The Southeastern Conference Faculty Travel Program is one mechanism by which the organization promotes scholarly excellence. In this case, the Faculty Travel Program provided a way for authors from the University of Kentucky to visit a nearby institution, Vanderbilt University, and learn from like-minded anatomy educators, with the goal of incorporating changes in their courses geared toward quality improvement. After this implementation, positive themes emerged in the student feedback on course evaluations. However, the collaboration was interrupted by the onset of the Covid-19 pandemic. This article examines the strengths of interinstitutional apprenticeship and the benefits of such practices in a time of accelerated change in anatomical instruction.

Enhancing Anatomical Instruction: Impact of a Virtual Canine Anatomy Program on Student Outcomes

Innovative reforms in medical education will require instructional tools to support these changes and to give students more flexibility in where and how they learn. At Colorado State University, the software program Virtual Canine Anatomy (VCA) was developed to assist student learning both inside and outside the anatomical laboratory. The program includes interactive anatomical photographs of dissected canine cadavers, dissection instructions with accompanying videos and diagrams, radiographs, and three-dimensional models. There is a need to evaluate the effectiveness of instructional tools like VCA so that decisions on pedagogical delivery can be evidence-based. To measure the impact of VCA on student outcomes in a dissection laboratory, this study compared student attitudes, quiz scores, dissection quality and accuracy, and instructor reliance between students with and without access to VCA. Students with VCA needed less time with teaching assistants (P < 0.01), asked teaching assistants fewer questions (P = 0.04), felt that the dissection was easier (P = 0.02), and were in stronger agreement that they had access to adequate resources (P = 0.02). No differences were found in the dissection quality or accuracy, quiz scores, or attitudes regarding overall enjoyment of the activity between the two groups. This study shows that VCA increases student independence and can be used to enhance anatomical instruction.