Power and Gambling: Dispositional Power Predicts Persistence on a Computerized Scratchcard Task

In gambling contexts, near-misses tend to be perceived as more aversive yet elicit greater motivation to continue playing than clear losses. The current research aimed to examine these effects in the context of situational and dispositional social power. In a pre-registered online study, Hong Kong Chinese undergraduate students (N = 238) with varying levels of gambling involvement completed a measure assessing their general beliefs about their ability to influence others and were then randomly assigned to imagine themselves in a position of high or low power. Participants subsequently played a computerized scratchcard task that delivered wins, near-misses, and clear losses and took trial-by-trial ratings of valence, arousal, and motivation. Following a mandatory phase, persistence was measured via the number of additional scratchcards participants chose to purchase. The results generally corroborated previous findings of different subjective appraisals to near-misses vs. clear losses, but surprisingly found that near-misses were considered to be more pleasant than clear losses. Situational power did not differentially modify these responses. Nevertheless, a main effect of dispositional power emerged in that participants who felt chronically high in power were twice as likely to purchase additional scratchcards compared to their low dispositional power counterparts. This study suggests that a generalized sense of power but not situational power triggers approach motivation in the form of prolonged gambling play.

Gambling and virtual reality: unraveling the illusion of near-misses effect

Introduction

Studying gambling behavior is a crucial element in reducing the impact of problem gambling. Nevertheless, most current research is carried out in controlled laboratory settings rather than real-life situations, which raises concerns about how applicable the findings are in the broader context. Virtual reality (VR) has proven to be a valuable tool and has been utilized in various experimental scenarios. A limited number of studies have employed VR to investigate gambling behaviors, and few have explored them in an older adolescent context.

Methods

This study examined the behavioral and physiological effects of gambling behavior, including problem gambling, gaming addiction, and risk-taking decision-making in a sample of 36 high-school students aged between 18 to 20 years using an ad-hoc constructed VR scenario designed to simulate a slot-machine platform.

Results

The behavioral results highlighted that participants reporting more problem gambling were sensitive to near-misses: i.e., they bet more after near-misses than after losses. This result may reflect the false belief that gamblers, after near-misses, are closer to winning. Physiological data showed that participants exhibited heart rate deceleration during the anticipation of the outcome, which has been suggested to represent a marker of feedback anticipation processing and hyposensitivity to losses.

Discussion

Overall, this study provides evidence for a new VR tool to assess gambling behaviors and new insights into gambling-related behavioral and physiological factors. Implications for the treatment of problem gambling are discussed.

Dynamic expectations: Behavioral and electrophysiological evidence of sub-second updates in reward predictions

Expectations are often dynamic: sports fans know that expectations are rapidly updated as games unfold. Yet expectations have traditionally been studied as static. Here we present behavioral and electrophysiological evidence of sub-second changes in expectations using slot machines as a case study. In Study 1, we demonstrate that EEG signal before the slot machine stops varies based on proximity to winning. Study 2 introduces a behavioral paradigm to measure dynamic expectations via betting, and shows that expectation trajectories vary as a function of winning proximity. Notably, these expectation trajectories parallel Study 1's EEG activity. Studies 3 (EEG) and 4 (behavioral) replicate these findings in the loss domain. These four studies provide compelling evidence that dynamic sub-second updates in expectations can be behaviorally and electrophysiologically measured. Our research opens promising avenues for understanding the dynamic nature of reward expectations and their impact on cognitive processes.

Dynamic expectations: Behavioral and electrophysiological evidence of sub-second updates in reward predictions

Expectations are often dynamic: any sports fan knows that expectations are rapidly updated as games unfold. Yet expectations have traditionally been studied as static. Here, using slot machines as a case study, we provide parallel behavioral and electrophysiological evidence of sub-second moment-to-moment changes in expectations. In Study 1, we show that the dynamics of the EEG signal before the slot machine stopped differed depending on the nature of the outcome, including not only whether the participant won or lost, but also how close they came to winning. In line with our predictions, Near Win Before outcomes (the slot machine stops one item before a match) were similar to Wins, but different than Near Win After (the machine stops one item after a match) and Full Miss (the machine stops two or three items from a match). In Study 2, we designed a novel behavioral paradigm to measure moment-to-moment changes in expectations via dynamic betting. We found that different outcomes also elicited unique expectation trajectories in the deceleration phase. Notably, these behavioral expectation trajectories paralleled Study 1's EEG activity in the last second prior to the machine's stop. In Studies 3 (EEG) and 4 (behavior) we replicated these findings in the loss domain where a match entails a loss. Again, we found a significant correlation between behavioral and EEG results. These four studies provide the first evidence that dynamic sub-second updates in expectations can be behaviorally and electrophysiologically measured. Our findings open up new avenues for studying the ongoing dynamics of reward expectations and their role in healthy and unhealthy cognition.

Autonomic responses during Gambling: the Effect of Outcome Type and Sex in a large community sample of young adults

Psychological theories consider autonomic arousal to be a reinforcer for problem gambling. Structural characteristics such as near-misses, which are non-win events that come close to a real win, have been shown to elicit win-like responses while increasing motivation and gambling persistence. This study investigated the autonomic and subjective responses of young adults to different gambling outcomes. This study also investigated sex differences in autonomic and subjective responses to different gambling outcomes.Participants from Sweden (n = 270) performed a computerized slot machine task that produced wins, near-misses (before and after payline) and full-misses. Phasic measurements of heart rate (HR) and skin conductance responses (SCR) were recorded during gambling performance and ratings of perceived chance of winning, pleasure and motivation to play were collected following each gambling outcome.Autonomic responses differed across slot machine outcomes as indicated by HR and SCR. Compared with other gambling outcomes, near-misses elicited the largest HR accelerations, and they also elicited larger HR decelerations and SCRs relative to full-misses. Near-misses before and after payline elicited differential psychophysiological responses and subjective reports, suggesting different emotional processing of near-miss subtypes. Females showed increased SCRs and motivation following win outcomes compared with males.In conclusion, wins, near-misses and full-misses generate differential physiological and subjective responses among young adults. Autonomic responses to wins differed between male and female players, emphasizing the need to consider sex differences when investigating the role of autonomic arousal in gambling.

Neurophysiological Correlates of the Near-Miss Effect in Gambling

The near-miss effect in gambling refers to a losing situation that is (or perceived to be) close to a win by the gambler. This effect is one of the many cognitive distortions that can occur during gambling games. The main objective of the present study was to analyze the electrophysiological correlates of the near-miss effect via an event-related potential (ERP) study examining four distinct gambling outcomes: win, full miss, near-miss before the payline, and near-miss after the payline. This study comprised 23 healthy voluntary participants (10 women) with ages ranging between 19 and 34 years (M = 22.5; SD = 3.65). All participants completed the South Oaks Gambling Screen and played a computerized slot machine, programed to induce the near-miss effect and specifically designed for an ERP study. By splitting the near-miss effect in two subtypes (before and after the payline), increased feedback-related negativity (FRN) was found for the near-misses after the payline in comparison to losses and also to near-misses before the payline. Results also indicated an increased P300 amplitude for the near-misses before the payline compared both with losses and with near-misses after the payline. The results suggest that both FRN and P300 present different sensitivities to near-miss subtypes, suggesting a payline effect that is not demonstrated when the data of near-misses before and after the payline are analyzed together. This is the first study to analyze the effect of the near-miss subtype in an ERP study and confirms the findings of previous behavioral studies.

Scratch Card Near-Miss Outcomes Increase the Urge to Gamble, but Do Not Impact Further Gambling Behaviour: A Pre-registered Replication and Extension

Scratch card near-misses, outcomes in which two out of three required jackpot symbols are uncovered, have been shown to erroneously increase the urge to continue gambling. It remains unknown if and how these outcomes influence further gambling behaviour. Previous studies examining the influence of near-misses on purchasing behaviour offered a low-stakes gamble to participants after experiencing a near-miss or a regular loss. We sought to investigate the influence of these outcomes on scratch card purchasing behaviour with a stronger test of participants’ gambling behavior by having them either “cash out” or risk all of their winnings to purchase another card. Additionally, we sought to test an original hypothesis that endorsement of the illusion of control might influence the decision to purchase additional scratch cards. We pre-registered our hypotheses, sample size, and data analysis plan. 138 subjects experienced two custom-made scratch card games that included a win on the first card (for all participants) and either a regular loss or a near-miss in the final outcome position on the second card (between-subjects manipulation). Although near-miss outcomes increased the urge to continue gambling relative to regular losses, no differences in the rates of purchasing were found between the conditions. Additionally, no support for our hypotheses concerning the influence of the illusion of control in near-miss outcomes was found. These results are discussed in terms of previous studies on scratch card gambling behaviour and subjective reactivity.

A Psychophysiological and Behavioural Study of Slot Machine Near-Misses Using Immersive Virtual Reality

During slot machine gambling, near-miss outcomes occur when the final winning icon lands one position off the pay-line. To understand how near-misses promote gambling behaviour in healthy populations, autonomic arousal is often used to index outcome response valence. Findings remain equivocal, possibly owing to the limited ecological validity of computer simulations. Relevant psychological traits, such as impulsivity, which increase the risk of problem gambling, are often not examined. Here, we used immersive virtual reality (VR) to investigate near-miss-induced changes in physiological arousal and VR gambling behaviour. Sixty adult participants with no history of problem gambling were immersed in a VR casino-bar where they engaged with a self-selected slot machine. Real-time heart rate (HR) data were acquired during immersion. Within-subjects analyses were conducted on HR and post-reinforcement pauses (PRPs; i.e., time taken to initiate next-spin) across wins, losses and near-misses. Significant HR acceleration occurred for both near-misses and losses compared to wins, indexing an initial orientation response. Both types of losses were associated with faster next-spin responses. Near-misses did not apparently have unique HR or PRP profiles from losses, although this may reflect our loss control condition, which in itself may have been a subtler near-miss outcome. Impulsivity measured by the SUPPS-P was not associated with near-miss responses. Losses may encourage gambling as participants experience more immediate HR acceleration (indexing arousal unique to losing) and initiate faster responses. Future studies should clarify this effect by investigating problem gambling cohorts and develop VR paradigms taking into consideration the current findings and limitations.

The Near-Miss Effect in Slot Machines: A Review and Experimental Analysis Over Half a Century Later

In games of chance, a near miss is said to occur when feedback for a loss approximates a win. For instance, obtaining “cherry–cherry–lemon” on a slot machine could be considered a near miss. Sixty-six years ago, B.F. Skinner first proposed the idea that near-miss events might reinforce continued play in slot machines, and despite some inconsistencies in the experimental literature, belief in this “near-miss effect” has remained strong. In the present manuscript, we will review this literature and present experimental assessments of the near-miss effect on the frequency of the gambling response. Experiment 1 used a tightly controlled resistance-to-extinction procedure in pigeons to evaluate the putative reinforcing effect of near misses relative to a control “far-miss” reel pattern. Experiment 2 extended Experiment 1’s procedure to human participants. The results of both experiments failed to support the near-miss effect hypothesis. Experiment 3 used a further simplified procedure to assess the validity of the resistance-to-extinction paradigm when a probable conditional reinforcer was present on the reel stimuli. Although a clear conditional response was obtained from the reel, subsequent testing in extinction revealed no conditionally reinforcing function of this stimulus on operant response frequency.

Increased Urge to Gamble Following Near-Miss Outcomes May Drive Purchasing Behaviour in Scratch Card Gambling

Previous research into scratch card gambling has highlighted the effects of these games on players’ arousal and affective states. Specifically, near-miss outcomes in scratch cards (uncovering 2 of 3 needed jackpot symbols) have been associated with high levels of physiological and subjective arousal and negative emotional evaluations, including increased frustration. We sought to extend this research by examining whether near-misses prompted increases in gambling urge, and the subsequent purchasing of additional scratch cards. Participants played two scratch cards with varying outcomes with half of the sample experiencing a near-miss for the jackpot prize, and the other half experiencing a regular loss. Players rated their urge to continue gambling after each game outcome, and following the initial playing phase, were then able to use their winnings to purchase additional cards. Our results indicated that near-misses increased the urge to gamble significantly more than regular losses, and urge to gamble in the near-miss group was significantly correlated with purchasing at least one additional card. Although some players in the loss group purchased another card, there was no correlation between urge to gamble and purchasing in this group. Additionally, participants in the near-miss group who purchased additional cards reported higher levels of urge than those who did not purchase more cards. This was not true for the loss group: participants who experienced solely losing outcomes reported similar levels of urge regardless of whether or not they purchased more scratch cards. Despite near-misses’ objective status as monetary losses, the increased urge that follows near-miss outcomes may translate into further scratch card gambling for a subset of individuals .

The Effect of Losses Disguised as Wins and Near Misses in Electronic Gaming Machines: A Systematic Review

Near misses and losses disguised as wins have been of interest to gambling researchers and policymakers for many years (e.g., Griffiths in J Gambl Stud 9(2):101-120, 1993). This systematic literature review describes the behavioural, psychological, and psychobiological effects of near misses and losses disguised as wins (LDWs) in an effort to evaluate their precise influence on the player and to highlight areas requiring further investigation. A systematic search for relevant studies was conducted using Scopus, PubMed, PsycINFO, ProQuest Sociology databases, and the Gambling Research Exchange Ontario Knowledge Repository. A total of 51 (from an initial pool of 802) experimental peer-reviewed studies using human participants were found between 1991 and 2015. The systematic review revealed that near misses motivate continued play, but have varying effects on the emotional state or betting behaviour of the player. Near miss events were also shown to be associated with elevated skin conductance levels and diffuse activity across the brain, most consistently in areas processing reinforcement and reward. Re-examination of the studies of near misses events after classifying the type of game feedback suggested that the effectiveness of near misses is related to the phenomenology of a near miss itself rather than as a response to auditory or visual feedback provided by a slot machine. In contrast to near misses, the presence of LDWs was found to relate to an overestimation of how much a player is actually winning and was consistently viewed as an exciting event. The effect of LDWs appears to be driven by the presence of visuals and sounds most often associated with a true win. Practical implications and directions for future research are also discussed.

On the Counterfactual Nature of Gambling Near-misses: An Experimental Study

Research on gambling near-misses has shown that objectively equivalent outcomes can yield divergent emotional and motivational responses. The subjective processing of gambling outcomes is affected substantially by close but non-obtained outcomes (i.e. counterfactuals). In the current paper, we investigate how different types of near-misses influence self-perceived luck and subsequent betting behavior in a wheel-of-fortune task. We investigate the counterfactual mechanism of these effects by testing the relationship with a second task measuring regret/relief processing. Across two experiments (Experiment 1, n = 51; Experiment 2, n = 104), we demonstrate that near-wins (neutral outcomes that are close to a jackpot) decreased self-perceived luck, whereas near-losses (neutral outcomes that are close to a major penalty) increased luck ratings. The effects of near-misses varied by near-miss position (i.e. whether the spinner stopped just short of, or passed through, the counterfactual outcome), consistent with established distinctions between upward versus downward, and additive versus subtractive, counterfactual thinking. In Experiment 1, individuals who showed stronger counterfactual processing on the regret/relief task were more responsive to near-wins and near-losses on the wheel-of-fortune task. The effect of near-miss position was attenuated when the anticipatory phase (i.e. the spin and deceleration) was removed in Experiment 2. Further differences were observed within the objective gains and losses, between "clear" and "narrow" outcomes. Taken together, these results help substantiate the counterfactual mechanism of near-misses.

Internet Gambling: A Critical Review of Behavioural Tracking Research

This paper reviews and analyzes studies that are focused on Internet gambling with the use of behavioural tracking and big data to identify gambling behaviour. The behaviour of gamblers has been extensively studied and much has been published on the subject. The vast majority of research has relied on self-reported gambling behaviour or case study research. With the advent of the Internet, however, it has become possible for researchers to remotely study the real behaviour of gamblers. The goal has been to empirically describe playing behaviour in several conditions and contexts. Existing research, conducted since the 2000s, focuses on several forms of gambling such as sports betting, casino, poker, and lottery, but there is still only a concise body of research on gambling behaviour with the use of Internet gambling tracking data. Most studies are based on the same databases, meaning that a few companies and websites were the basis for most of the research produced so far. It is important to explore new sources of information, methodologies, and approaches to enrich discussion and contribute to a better understanding of this field. The empirical analysis of gambling behaviour with the use of tracking data was found to greatly contribute to the understanding of player behaviour, despite existing limitations and problems. Considering that Internet gambling behavioural tracking is still a fairly recent phenomenon, much can still be done to further develop this field of research.Cet article examine et analyse les études axées sur le jeu en ligne qui recourent au suivi comportemental et aux mégadonnées pour cerner le comportement lié au jeu. Or, on a souvent étudié le comportement des joueurs et on a beaucoup publié sur le sujet, mais jusqu’à présent, la majeure partie de la recherche repose sur le comportement autodéclaré ou la recherche fondée sur les études de cas. Avec l’avènement d’Internet, il est dorénavant possible pour les chercheurs d’étudier à distance le comportement réel des joueurs. L’objectif a donc consisté à décrire de manière empirique le comportement lié au jeu dans plusieurs conditions et contextes. La recherche existante, menée depuis les années 2000, se concentre sur plusieurs formes de jeux de hasard tels que les paris sportifs, le casino, le poker et la loterie. Mais à ce jour, il n’existe qu’un corpus de recherches très concis sur le comportement lié au jeu qui utilise des données de suivi sur le jeu par Internet. La plupart des études sont fondées sur les mêmes bases de données, car seulement quelques entreprises et sites Web ont servi de base à la plupart des recherches produites jusqu’à maintenant. Il est donc important d’explorer de nouvelles sources d’information, méthodologies et approches pour pouvoir enrichir les discussions et améliorer la compréhension de ce domaine. L’analyse empirique du comportement lié au jeu à l’aide de données de suivi a ainsi largement contribué à la compréhension du comportement du joueur en dépit des limites et problèmes existants. Si l’on tient compte du fait que le suivi comportemental du jeu sur Internet est un phénomène encore assez récent, il reste beaucoup à faire pour exploiter davantage ce domaine de recherche.

An Overview of Structural Characteristics in Problematic Video Game Playing

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

There are many different factors involved in how and why people develop problems with video game playing. One such set of factors concerns the structural characteristics of video games (i.e., the structure, elements, and components of the video games themselves). Much of the research examining the structural characteristics of video games was initially based on research and theorizing from the gambling studies field. The present review briefly overviews the key papers in the field to date.

RECENT FINDINGS

The paper examines a number of areas including (i) similarities in structural characteristics of gambling and video gaming, (ii) structural characteristics in video games, (iii) narrative and flow in video games, (iv) structural characteristic taxonomies for video games, and (v) video game structural characteristics and game design ethics. Many of the studies carried out to date are small-scale, and comprise self-selected convenience samples (typically using self-report surveys or non-ecologically valid laboratory experiments).

SUMMARY

Based on the small amount of empirical data, it appears that structural features that take a long time to achieve in-game are the ones most associated with problematic video game play (e.g., earning experience points, managing in-game resources, mastering the video game, getting 100% in-game). The study of video games from a structural characteristic perspective is of benefit to many different stakeholders including academic researchers, video game players, and video game designers, as well as those interested in prevention and policymaking by making the games more socially responsible. It is important that researchers understand and recognize the psycho-social effects and impacts that the structural characteristics of video games can have on players, both positive and negative.

Video Lottery is the Most Harmful Form of Gambling in Canada

This paper summarizes the degree to which different forms of legal gambling contribute to Problem and Pathological Gambling (PPG) in Canada. Legal gambling activities were compared using meta-analysis of publicly available data concerning Canada's legal gambling industry. The majority of revenues in the decade spanning 2002-2012 were drawn from Video Lottery Terminals and casino slot machines. Population surveys indicated that three quarters of Canadians reported some form of past-year gambling participation, but most did not play Electronic Gambling Machines. Annual revenues divided by estimated numbers of participants in various gambling activities showed that Video Lottery players spent more money on average than did participants in other forms of gambling. The relative risk of PPG was higher among Video Lottery players than it was for other common forms of gambling. Results from a community study of frequent Video Lottery players showed that the risk of frequent players reporting symptoms of PPG was elevated if they reported playing weekly, spending $50 or more per session, or playing for more than an hour per session. These studies provide converging evidence that Video Lottery is more hazardous to consumers than other forms of gambling that are commonly practised in Canada.

Mixed Emotions to Near-Miss Outcomes: A Psychophysiological Study with Facial Electromyography

Near-misses occur across many forms of gambling and are rated as unpleasant while simultaneously increasing the motivation to continue playing. On slot machines, the icon position relative to the payline moderates the effects of near-misses, with near-misses before the payline increasing motivation, and near-misses after the payline being rated as aversive. Near-misses are also known to increase physiological arousal compared to full-misses, but physiological measures to date have not been able to dissociate positive and negative emotional responses. The present study measured facial electromyography at the corrugator (brow) and zygomaticus (cheek) sites, as well as electrodermal activity (EDA), following gambling outcomes on a two-reel slot machine simulation in 77 novice gamblers. Behavioral data was collected using trial-by-trial ratings of motivation and valence. Wins were rated as more pleasant and increased motivation to continue playing, compared to non-win outcomes. Wins were also accompanied by increased EDA and zygomaticus activity. Near-misses after the payline were rated as more aversive than other non-wins, and this was accompanied by increased EDA and zygomaticus activity. Near-misses before the payline increased motivation to continue playing, and were accompanied by increased EDA. Thus, both subjective and physiological responses to near-misses differ for events falling either side of the payline. The 'near-miss effect' is not a unitary phenomenon. Facial EMG has differential sensitivity to positive and negative valence and may be a useful measure for future studies of gambling behavior.

Missed losses loom larger than missed gains: Electrodermal reactivity to decision choices and outcomes in a gambling task

Loss aversion is a defining characteristic of prospect theory, whereby responses are stronger to losses than to equivalently sized gains (Kahneman & Tversky Econometrica, 47, 263-291, 1979). By monitoring electrodermal activity (EDA) during a gambling task, in this study we examined physiological activity during risky decisions, as well as to both obtained (e.g., gains and losses) and counterfactual (e.g., narrowly missed gains and losses) outcomes. During the bet selection phase, EDA increased linearly with bet size, highlighting the role of somatic signals in decision-making under uncertainty in a task without any learning requirement. Outcome-related EDA scaled with the magnitudes of monetary wins and losses, and losses had a stronger impact on EDA than did equivalently sized wins. Narrowly missed wins (i.e., near-wins) and narrowly missed losses (i.e., near-losses) also evoked EDA responses, and the change of EDA as a function of the size of the missed outcome was modestly greater for near-losses than for near-wins, suggesting that near-losses have more impact on subjective value than do near-wins. Across individuals, the slope for choice-related EDA (as a function of bet size) correlated with the slope for outcome-related EDA as a function of both the obtained and counterfactual outcome magnitudes, and these correlations were stronger for loss and near-loss conditions than for win and near-win conditions. Taken together, these asymmetrical EDA patterns to objective wins and losses, as well as to near-wins and near-losses, provide a psychophysiological instantiation of the value function curve in prospect theory, which is steeper in the negative than in the positive domain.

Amplified Striatal Responses to Near-Miss Outcomes in Pathological Gamblers

Near-misses in gambling games are losing events that come close to a win. Near-misses were previously shown to recruit reward-related brain regions including the ventral striatum, and to invigorate gambling behavior, supposedly by fostering an illusion of control. Given that pathological gamblers are particularly vulnerable to such cognitive illusions, their persistent gambling behavior might result from an amplified striatal sensitivity to near-misses. In addition, animal studies have shown that behavioral responses to near-miss-like events are sensitive to dopamine, but this dopaminergic influence has not been tested in humans. To investigate these hypotheses, we recruited 22 pathological gamblers and 22 healthy controls who played a slot machine task delivering wins, near-misses and full-misses, inside an fMRI scanner. Each participant played the task twice, once under placebo and once under a dopamine D2 receptor antagonist (sulpiride 400 mg), in a double-blind, counter-balanced design. Participants were asked about their motivation to continue gambling throughout the task. Across all participants, near-misses elicited higher motivation to continue gambling and increased striatal responses compared with full-misses. Crucially, pathological gamblers showed amplified striatal responses to near-misses compared with controls. These group differences were not observed following win outcomes. In contrast to our hypothesis, sulpiride did not induce any reliable modulation of brain responses to near-misses. Together, our results demonstrate that pathological gamblers have amplified brain responses to near-misses, which likely contribute to their persistent gambling behavior. However, there is no evidence that these responses are influenced by dopamine. These results have implications for treatment and gambling regulation.

Gamble While You Gamble: Electronic Games in Ontario Charitable Gaming Centres

Electronic Bingo games have recently appeared in Ontario Charitable Gaming Centres. Here we summarize the characteristics of this novel form of electronic gambling, and give a detailed characterization of one game. We contend that these games have structural characteristics that make them similar to modern Electronic Gaming Machines (EGMs) that feature multiline slots games. These features include a fast and continuous gaming experience, with player adjustable win size and reinforcement rate, a high frequency of losses disguised as wins, and highly salient near misses. Some of these games also have bonus rounds and provide players with a list of recent wins. We conclude that provincial and state gaming authorities should be aware that the placement of Bingo EGMs in existing Bingo facilities may increase problem gambling among an already well-established community of Bingo enthusiasts.

Disordered gambling: the evolving concept of behavioral addiction

The reclassification of gambling disorder within the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) addictions category marks an important step for addiction science. The similarities between gambling disorder and the substance use disorders have been well documented. As gambling is unlikely to exert actively damaging effects on the brain, the cognitive sequelae of gambling disorder may provide insights into addictive vulnerabilities; this idea is critically evaluated in light of recent structural imaging data. The second part of the review analyzes a fundamental question of how a behavior can become addictive in the absence of exogenous drug stimulation. The relative potency of drug and nondrug rewards is considered, alongside evidence that cognitive distortions in the processing of chance (for example, the illusion of control and the gambler's fallacy) may constitute an important added ingredient in gambling. Further understanding of these mechanisms at neural and behavioral levels will be critical for the classification of future behavioral addictions, and I consider the current research data for obesity and binge eating, compulsive shopping, and internet gaming disorder.

Striatal connectivity changes following gambling wins and near-misses: Associations with gambling severity

Frontostriatal circuitry is implicated in the cognitive distortions associated with gambling behaviour. 'Near-miss' events, where unsuccessful outcomes are proximal to a jackpot win, recruit overlapping neural circuitry with actual monetary wins. Personal control over a gamble (e.g., via choice) is also known to increase confidence in one's chances of winning (the 'illusion of control'). Using psychophysiological interaction (PPI) analyses, we examined changes in functional connectivity as regular gamblers and non-gambling participants played a slot-machine game that delivered wins, near-misses and full-misses, and manipulated personal control. We focussed on connectivity with striatal seed regions, and associations with gambling severity, using voxel-wise regression. For the interaction term of near-misses (versus full-misses) by personal choice (participant-chosen versus computer-chosen), ventral striatal connectivity with the insula, bilaterally, was positively correlated with gambling severity. In addition, some effects for the contrast of wins compared to all non-wins were observed at an uncorrected (p < .001) threshold: there was an overall increase in connectivity between the striatal seeds and left orbitofrontal cortex and posterior insula, and a negative correlation for gambling severity with the connectivity between the right ventral striatal seed and left anterior cingulate cortex. These findings corroborate the 'non-categorical' nature of reward processing in gambling: near-misses and full-misses are objectively identical outcomes that are processed differentially. Ventral striatal connectivity with the insula correlated positively with gambling severity in the illusion of control contrast, which could be a risk factor for the cognitive distortions and loss-chasing that are characteristic of problem gambling.

Damage to insula abolishes cognitive distortions during simulated gambling

Gambling is a naturalistic example of risky decision-making. During gambling, players typically display an array of cognitive biases that create a distorted expectancy of winning. This study investigated brain regions underpinning gambling-related cognitive distortions, contrasting patients with focal brain lesions to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), insula, or amygdala ("target patients") against healthy comparison participants and lesion comparison patients (i.e., with lesions that spare the target regions). A slot machine task was used to deliver near-miss outcomes (i.e., nonwins that fall spatially close to a jackpot), and a roulette game was used to examine the gambler's fallacy (color decisions following outcome runs). Comparison groups displayed a heightened motivation to play following near misses (compared with full misses), and manifested a classic gambler's fallacy effect. Both effects were also observed in patients with vmPFC and amygdala damage, but were absent in patients with insula damage. Our findings indicate that the distorted cognitive processing of near-miss outcomes and event sequences may be ordinarily supported by the recruitment of the insula. Interventions to reduce insula reactivity could show promise in the treatment of disordered gambling.