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G. Saiz P, Fernández de Luis R, Lasheras A, Arriortua MI, Lopes AC. Magnetoelastic Resonance Sensors: Principles, Applications, and Perspectives. ACS Sens 2022; 7:1248-1268. [PMID: 35452212 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.2c00032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Magnetoelastic resonators are gaining attention as an incredibly versatile and sensitive transduction platform for the detection of varied physical, chemical, and biological parameters. These sensors, based on the coupling effect between mechanical and magnetic properties of ME platforms, stand out in comparison to alternative technologies due to their low cost and wireless detection capability. Several parameters have been optimized over the years to improve their performance, such as their composition, surface functionalization, or shape geometry. In this review, the working principles, recent advances, and future perspectives of magnetoelastic resonance transducers are introduced, highlighting their potentials as a versatile platform for sensing applications. First, the fundamental principles governing the magnetoelastic resonators performance are introduced as well as the most common magnetoelastic materials and their main fabrication methods are described. Second, the versatility and technical feasibility of magnetoelastic resonators for biological, chemical, and physical sensing are highlighted and the most recent results and functionalization processes are summarized. Finally, the forefront advances to further improve the performance of magnetoelastic resonators for sensing applications have been identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula G. Saiz
- BCMaterials, Basque Center for Materials, Applications and Nanostructures, UPV/EHU Science Park, 48940, Leioa, Spain
- Department of Geology, Science and Technology Faculty, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Barrio Sarriena s/n, 48940, Leioa, Spain
| | - Roberto Fernández de Luis
- BCMaterials, Basque Center for Materials, Applications and Nanostructures, UPV/EHU Science Park, 48940, Leioa, Spain
| | - Andoni Lasheras
- Department of Physics, Science and Technology Faculty, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Barrio Sarriena s/n, 48940, Leioa, Spain
| | - María Isabel Arriortua
- BCMaterials, Basque Center for Materials, Applications and Nanostructures, UPV/EHU Science Park, 48940, Leioa, Spain
- Department of Geology, Science and Technology Faculty, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Barrio Sarriena s/n, 48940, Leioa, Spain
| | - Ana Catarina Lopes
- Macromolecular Chemistry Group (LABQUIMAC), Department of Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Barrio Sarriena, s/n, 48940, Leioa, Spain
- Centre for Cooperative Research on Alternative Energies (CIC energiGUNE), Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Alava Technology Park, Albert Einstein 48, 01510, Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain
- IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, Plaza Euskadi 5, 48009, Bilbao, Spain
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Du S, Chen IH, MacLachlan A, Liu Y, Huang TS, Cheng Z, Chen P, Chin BA. 3D Phage-based biomolecular filter for effective high throughput capture of Salmonella Typhimurium in liquid streams. Food Res Int 2021; 142:110181. [PMID: 33773657 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2021.110181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2020] [Revised: 01/21/2021] [Accepted: 01/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Foodborne illnesses caused by pathogens on fresh produce remain one of the most critical food safety problems the world faces. The recalls of pasta salad in 2018 and pre-cut melons in 2019 imply current methods in identifying the source of pathogens and outbreak prevention are inappropriate and time consuming. In this article, a new technology, called the 3D phage-based biomolecular filter, was developed to simultaneously capture and concentrate foodborne pathogens from large volumes of liquid streams (food liquid or wash water streams). The 3D phage-based filter consisted of phage-immobilized magnetoelastic (ME) filter elements, a filter pipe system, and a uniform magnetic field to fix and align the ME filter elements in the 3D filter column. The closely packed ME filter elements display a 3D layered structure which allows for enhanced surface interaction of the immobilized bacteriophage with specific pathogens in the passing liquid streams. As a result, a pathogen capture rate of more than 90% was achieved at a high flow rate of 3 mm/s with 20,000 ME filter elements. The capability of the 3D phage-based filter to capture pathogens in liquid streams at different filter element packing densities was further validated by experiments, finite element analysis and theoretical calculations. The capture rate increases significantly with larger numbers of ME filter elements placed in the testing pipe, and the turbulence flow induced by the 3D stacking of ME filter elements can further improve the capture efficiency. This technology enables rapid capture and analysis of large volume of water in processing fresh fruit and vegetables for the presence of small quantities of pathogens, which will ultimately benefit producers, the food industry, and society with improved food safety and production efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Songtao Du
- Material Research and Education Center, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
| | - I-Hsuan Chen
- Department of Biological Science, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
| | - Alana MacLachlan
- Material Research and Education Center, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
| | - Yuzhe Liu
- Material Research and Education Center, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
| | - Tung-Shi Huang
- Department of Poultry Science, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
| | - Zhongyang Cheng
- Material Research and Education Center, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
| | - Pengyu Chen
- Material Research and Education Center, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
| | - Bryan A Chin
- Material Research and Education Center, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
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Narita F, Wang Z, Kurita H, Li Z, Shi Y, Jia Y, Soutis C. A Review of Piezoelectric and Magnetostrictive Biosensor Materials for Detection of COVID-19 and Other Viruses. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2021; 33:e2005448. [PMID: 33230875 PMCID: PMC7744850 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202005448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2020] [Revised: 09/19/2020] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
The spread of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus has changed the lives of people around the world with a huge impact on economies and societies. The development of wearable sensors that can continuously monitor the environment for viruses may become an important research area. Here, the state of the art of research on biosensor materials for virus detection is reviewed. A general description of the principles for virus detection is included, along with a critique of the experimental work dedicated to various virus sensors, and a summary of their detection limitations. The piezoelectric sensors used for the detection of human papilloma, vaccinia, dengue, Ebola, influenza A, human immunodeficiency, and hepatitis B viruses are examined in the first section; then the second part deals with magnetostrictive sensors for the detection of bacterial spores, proteins, and classical swine fever. In addition, progress related to early detection of COVID-19 (coronavirus disease 2019) is discussed in the final section, where remaining challenges in the field are also identified. It is believed that this review will guide material researchers in their future work of developing smart biosensors, which can further improve detection sensitivity in monitoring currently known and future virus threats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fumio Narita
- Department of Frontier Sciences for Advanced EnvironmentGraduate School of Environmental StudiesTohoku UniversityAoba‐yama 6‐6‐02Sendai980‐8579Japan
| | - Zhenjin Wang
- Department of Materials ProcessingGraduate School of EngineeringTohoku UniversityAoba‐yama 6‐6‐02Sendai980‐8579Japan
| | - Hiroki Kurita
- Department of Frontier Sciences for Advanced EnvironmentGraduate School of Environmental StudiesTohoku UniversityAoba‐yama 6‐6‐02Sendai980‐8579Japan
| | - Zhen Li
- College of Automation EngineeringNanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics29 Jiangjun AvenueNanjing211106China
| | - Yu Shi
- Department of Mechanical EngineeringUniversity of ChesterThornton Science Park, Pool LaneChesterCH2 4NUUK
| | - Yu Jia
- School of Engineering and Applied ScienceAston UniversityBirminghamB4 7ETUK
| | - Constantinos Soutis
- Aerospace Research InstituteThe University of ManchesterOxford RoadManchesterM13 9PLUK
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Campanile R, Scardapane E, Forente A, Granata C, Germano R, Di Girolamo R, Minopoli A, Velotta R, Della Ventura B, Iannotti V. Core-Shell Magnetic Nanoparticles for Highly Sensitive Magnetoelastic Immunosensor. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2020; 10:E1526. [PMID: 32759707 PMCID: PMC7466411 DOI: 10.3390/nano10081526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2020] [Revised: 07/16/2020] [Accepted: 07/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
A magnetoelastic (ME) biosensor for wireless detection of analytes in liquid is described. The ME biosensor was tested against human IgG in the range 0-20 μg∙mL-1. The sensing elements, anti-human IgG produced in goat, were immobilized on the surface of the sensor by using a recently introduced photochemical immobilization technique (PIT), whereas a new amplification protocol exploiting gold coated magnetic nanoparticles (core-shell nanoparticles) is demonstrated to significantly enhance the sensitivity. The gold nanoflowers grown on the magnetic core allowed us to tether anti-human IgG to the nanoparticles to exploit the sandwich detection scheme. The experimental results show that the 6 mm × 1 mm × 30 μm ME biosensor with an amplification protocol that uses magnetic nanoparticles has a limit of detection (LOD) lower than 1 nM, works well in water, and has a rapid response time of few minutes. Therefore, the ME biosensor is very promising for real-time wireless detection of pathogens in liquids and for real life diagnostic purpose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raffaele Campanile
- Department of Physics “E. Pancini”, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cintia 26, I-80126 Napoli, Italy; (R.C.); (E.S.); (A.F.); (A.M.); (R.V.); (B.D.V.)
- PROMETE Srl, CNR Spin off, Piazzale Tecchio, 45 80125 Napoli, Italy;
| | - Emanuela Scardapane
- Department of Physics “E. Pancini”, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cintia 26, I-80126 Napoli, Italy; (R.C.); (E.S.); (A.F.); (A.M.); (R.V.); (B.D.V.)
- PROMETE Srl, CNR Spin off, Piazzale Tecchio, 45 80125 Napoli, Italy;
| | - Antonio Forente
- Department of Physics “E. Pancini”, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cintia 26, I-80126 Napoli, Italy; (R.C.); (E.S.); (A.F.); (A.M.); (R.V.); (B.D.V.)
| | - Carmine Granata
- Institute of Applied Sciences and Intelligent Systems of the National Research Council (CNR-ISASI), Via Campi Flegrei 34, I-80078 Pozzuoli, Italy;
- Department of Mathematics and Physics-University of Campania “L. Vanvitelli”, Viale Abramo Lincoln 5, 81100 Caserta, Italy
| | - Roberto Germano
- PROMETE Srl, CNR Spin off, Piazzale Tecchio, 45 80125 Napoli, Italy;
| | - Rocco Di Girolamo
- Department of Chemistry, University of Naples “Federico II”, Via Cintia 26, I-80126 Napoli, Italy;
| | - Antonio Minopoli
- Department of Physics “E. Pancini”, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cintia 26, I-80126 Napoli, Italy; (R.C.); (E.S.); (A.F.); (A.M.); (R.V.); (B.D.V.)
| | - Raffaele Velotta
- Department of Physics “E. Pancini”, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cintia 26, I-80126 Napoli, Italy; (R.C.); (E.S.); (A.F.); (A.M.); (R.V.); (B.D.V.)
- Institute of Applied Sciences and Intelligent Systems of the National Research Council (CNR-ISASI), Via Campi Flegrei 34, I-80078 Pozzuoli, Italy;
| | - Bartolomeo Della Ventura
- Department of Physics “E. Pancini”, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cintia 26, I-80126 Napoli, Italy; (R.C.); (E.S.); (A.F.); (A.M.); (R.V.); (B.D.V.)
- Institute of Applied Sciences and Intelligent Systems of the National Research Council (CNR-ISASI), Via Campi Flegrei 34, I-80078 Pozzuoli, Italy;
| | - Vincenzo Iannotti
- Department of Physics “E. Pancini”, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cintia 26, I-80126 Napoli, Italy; (R.C.); (E.S.); (A.F.); (A.M.); (R.V.); (B.D.V.)
- Institute for Superconducting, Oxides and other Innovative Materials and Devices of the National Research Council (CNR-SPIN), Piazzale V. Tecchio 80, I-80125 Napoli, Italy
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Damping Force and Loading Position Dependence of Mass Sensitivity of Magnetoelastic Biosensors in Viscous Liquid. SENSORS 2018; 19:s19010067. [PMID: 30585200 PMCID: PMC6339079 DOI: 10.3390/s19010067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2018] [Revised: 12/17/2018] [Accepted: 12/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
We established the vibration governing equation for a magnetoelastic (ME) biosensor with target loading in liquid. Based on the equation, a numerical simulation approach was used to determine the effect of the target loading position and viscous damping coefficient on the node ("blind points") and mass sensitivity (Sm) of an ME biosensor under different order resonances. The results indicate that viscous damping force causes the specific nodes shift but does not affect the overall variation trend of Sm as the change of target loading position and the effect on Sm gradually reduces when the target approaches to the node. In addition, Sm decreases with the increase of viscous damping coefficient but the tendency becomes weak at high-order resonance. Moreover, the effect of target loading position on Sm decreases with the increase of viscous damping coefficient. Finally, the results provide certain guidance on improving the mass sensitivity of an ME biosensor in liquid by controlling the target loading position.
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Zhang K, Zhu Q, Chen Z. Effect of Distributed Mass on the Node, Frequency, and Sensitivity of Resonant-Mode Based Cantilevers. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2017; 17:s17071621. [PMID: 28703750 PMCID: PMC5539704 DOI: 10.3390/s17071621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2017] [Revised: 07/01/2017] [Accepted: 07/05/2017] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
We derived an analytical expression for a resonant-mode based bi-layered cantilever with distributed mass load. The behavior of mode of vibration, nodal position, frequency shift, as well as sensitivity under different mass load distributions was theoretically studied. The theoretical results suggested that asymmetric mass load distribution leads to the shift of nodes as well as the sensitive regions of a resonant-mode based cantilever. n - 1 local maximal sensitivities and n - 1 local minimal sensitivities are observed when the cantilever vibrates in the nth-order resonance. The maximal sensitivity is found at the first local maximal sensitivity and the behavior of mass load length as a function of the maximal sensitivity follows the rule of an exponent decaying function. The sensitivity increases as the load mass increases for the same mass load distribution, but the corresponding slopes are different.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kewei Zhang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Taiyuan University of Science and Technology, Taiyuan 030024, China.
| | - Qianke Zhu
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Taiyuan University of Science and Technology, Taiyuan 030024, China.
| | - Zhe Chen
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Taiyuan University of Science and Technology, Taiyuan 030024, China.
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Chen J, Duncan B, Wang Z, Wang LS, Rotello VM, Nugen SR. Bacteriophage-based nanoprobes for rapid bacteria separation. NANOSCALE 2015; 7:16230-16236. [PMID: 26315848 DOI: 10.1039/c5nr03779d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The lack of practical methods for bacterial separation remains a hindrance for the low-cost and successful development of rapid detection methods from complex samples. Antibody-tagged magnetic particles are commonly used to pull analytes from a liquid sample. While this method is well-established, improvements in capture efficiencies would result in an increase of the overall detection assay performance. Bacteriophages represent a low-cost and more consistent biorecognition element as compared to antibodies. We have developed nanoscale bacteriophage-tagged magnetic probes, where T7 bacteriophages were bound to magnetic nanoparticles. The nanoprobe allowed the specific recognition and attachment to E. coli cells. The phage magnetic nanprobes were directly compared to antibody-conjugated magnetic nanoprobes. The capture efficiencies of bacteriophages and antibodies on nanoparticles for the separation of E. coli K12 at varying concentrations were determined. The results indicated a similar bacteria capture efficiency between the two nanoprobes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juhong Chen
- Department of Food Science, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, 102 Holdsworth Way, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, USA.
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Location Dependence of Mass Sensitivity for Acoustic Wave Devices. SENSORS 2015; 15:24585-94. [PMID: 26404313 PMCID: PMC4610577 DOI: 10.3390/s150924585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2015] [Accepted: 09/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
It is introduced that the mass sensitivity (Sm) of an acoustic wave (AW) device with a concentrated mass can be simply determined using its mode shape function: the Sm is proportional to the square of its mode shape. By using the Sm of an AW device with a uniform mass, which is known for almost all AW devices, the Sm of an AW device with a concentrated mass at different locations can be determined. The method is confirmed by numerical simulation for one type of AW device and the results from two other types of AW devices.
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Chen J, Alcaine SD, Jiang Z, Rotello VM, Nugen SR. Detection of Escherichia coli in Drinking Water Using T7 Bacteriophage-Conjugated Magnetic Probe. Anal Chem 2015; 87:8977-84. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.5b02175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Juhong Chen
- Department
of Food Science, University of Massachusetts, 102 Holdsworth Way, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, United States
| | - Samuel D. Alcaine
- Department
of Food Science, University of Massachusetts, 102 Holdsworth Way, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, United States
| | - Ziwen Jiang
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Massachusetts, 710 North Pleasant Street, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, United States
| | - Vincent M. Rotello
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Massachusetts, 710 North Pleasant Street, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, United States
| | - Sam R. Nugen
- Department
of Food Science, University of Massachusetts, 102 Holdsworth Way, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, United States
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Zhang K, Zhang L, Chai Y. Mass Load Distribution Dependence of Mass Sensitivity of Magnetoelastic Sensors under Different Resonance Modes. SENSORS 2015; 15:20267-78. [PMID: 26295233 PMCID: PMC4570421 DOI: 10.3390/s150820267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2015] [Revised: 08/07/2015] [Accepted: 08/11/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Magnetoelastic sensors as an important type of acoustic wave sensors have shown great promise for a variety of applications. Mass sensitivity is a key parameter to characterize its performance. In this work, the effects of mass load distribution on the mass sensitivity of a magnetoelastic sensor under different resonance modes were theoretically investigated using the modal analysis method. The results show that the mass sensitivity and “nodal point” positions are related to the point displacement, which is determined by the motion patterns. The motion patterns are affected by resonance modes and mass load distribution. Asymmetrical mass load distribution causes the motion patterns lose symmetry and leads to the shift of “nodal point”. The mass sensitivity changing with mass load distribution behaves like a sine wave with decaying amplitude and the minimum mass sensitivity appears at the first valley. This study provides certain theoretical guidance for optimizing the mass sensitivity of a magnetoelastic sensor or other acoustic wave based sensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kewei Zhang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Taiyuan University of Science and Technology, Taiyuan 030024, China.
| | - Lin Zhang
- Materials Research and Education Center, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
| | - Yuesheng Chai
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Taiyuan University of Science and Technology, Taiyuan 030024, China.
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Fang B, Gon S, Nüsslein K, Santore MM. Surfaces for competitive selective bacterial capture from protein solutions. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2015; 7:10275-10282. [PMID: 25955769 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.5b00864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Active surfaces that form the basis for bacterial sensors for threat detection, food safety, or certain diagnostic applications rely on bacterial adhesion. However, bacteria capture from complex fluids on the active surfaces can be reduced by the competing adsorption of proteins and other large molecules. Such adsorption can also interfere with device performance. As a result, multiple upstream processing steps are frequently employed to separate macromolecules from any cells, which remain in the buffer. Here, we present an economical approach to capture bacteria, without competitive adsorption by proteins, on engineered surfaces that do not employ biomolecular recognition, antibodies, or other molecules with engineered sequences. The surfaces are based on polyethylene glycol (PEG) brushes that, on their own, repel both proteins and bacteria. These PEG brushes backfill the surface around sparsely adsorbed cationic polymer coils (here, poly-L-lysine (PLL)). The PLL coils are effectively embedded within the brush and produce locally cationic nanoscale regions that attract negatively charged regions of proteins or cells against the steric background repulsion from the PEG brush. By carefully designing the surfaces to include just enough PLL to capture bacteria, but not enough to capture proteins, we achieve sharp selectivity where S. aureus is captured from albumin- or fibrinogen-containing solutions, but free albumin or fibrinogen molecules are rejected from the surface. Bacterial adhesion on these surfaces is not reduced by competitive protein adsorption, in contrast to performance of more uniformly cationic surfaces. Also, protein adsorption to the bacteria does not interfere with capture, at least for the case of S. aureus, to which fibrinogen binds through a specific receptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bing Fang
- †Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, ‡Department of Chemical Engineering, and §Department of Microbiology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, United States
| | - Saugata Gon
- †Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, ‡Department of Chemical Engineering, and §Department of Microbiology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, United States
| | - Klaus Nüsslein
- †Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, ‡Department of Chemical Engineering, and §Department of Microbiology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, United States
| | - Maria M Santore
- †Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, ‡Department of Chemical Engineering, and §Department of Microbiology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, United States
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