Recent analytical methods for atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and their derivatives

A review of food contamination with nitrated and oxygenated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: toxicity, analysis, occurrence, and risk assessment

Prolonged exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and their derivatives, particularly nitrated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (NPAHs) and oxygenated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (OPAHs), can result in adverse health effects and may carry higher toxicity risks compared to PAHs alone. Various extraction methods have been utilized for PAHs derivatives from food samples. The analytes are then analyzed using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry and high-performance liquid chromatography techniques. PAHs derivatives are increasingly being detected in the environment, prompting scrutiny from numerous researchers. Similarly, their presence in food is becoming a significant concern. The elevated levels of PAH derivatives found in smoked food may result in detrimental dietary exposure and pose potential health hazards. Furthermore, investigating the level of exposure to these contaminants in food is imperative, as their consumption by humans carries inherent risks. Consequently, this review concentrates on the toxicity, analysis, occurrence, and risk evaluation of NPAHs and OPAHs present in food sources.

Contributions of long-range transport from the Asian continent and local emissions on atmospheric PM2.5, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and their nitro-derivatives in Kanazawa and Noto Peninsula, Japan

This study collected samples of particulate matter that are 2.5 μm or less in diameter (PM2.5) in Kanazawa, Japan, and Noto Peninsula located 100 km north on the windward side of the westerlies from the Asian continent and characterized the extent of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and nitro-PAHs (NPAHs) pollution in Kanazawa. Emission areas and specific sources of PM2.5 and of PAHs and NPAHs were clarified via back-trajectory analysis and the NP-method, respectively. The results indicate that during 2020 and 2021, most PAHs (93%) in Kanazawa were transported from the Asian continent by westerlies and that the main source was coal and biomass combustion. The presence of NPAHs in Kanazawa was caused by a mixture of transport from the Asian continent (53%) and local emissions (47%), with the main source of the latter being from vehicles. Although the content of combustion-derived particulates (Pc) was <2.4% of PM2.5 in Kanazawa, this showed a similar seasonal variation (winter > summer) to that of PAHs. The contribution of Pc transported from the Asian continent exceeded that of locally emitted Pc. The current situation of Kanazawa is considerably different from that of 1997, when local vehicles were the main source of pollution.

Effects of electron acceptors and donors on anaerobic biodegradation of PAHs in marine sediments

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are typical organic pollutants accumulated in the environment. PAHs' bioremediation in sediments can be promoted by adding electron acceptor (EA) and electron donor (ED). Bicarbonate and sulfate were chosen as two EAs, and acetate and lactate were selected as two EDs. Six groups of amendments were added into the sediments to access their role in the anaerobic biodegradation of five PAHs, containing phenanthrene, anthracene, fluoranthene, pyrene, and benzo[a]pyrene. The concentrations of PAHs, EAs and EDs, electron transport system activity, and microbial diversity were analyzed during 126-day biodegradation in serum bottles. The HA group (bicarbonate and acetate) achieved the maximum PAH degradation efficiency of 89.67 %, followed by the SL group (sulfate and lactate) with 87.10 %. As the main PAHs degrading bacteria, the abundance of Marinobacter in H group was 8.62 %, and the addition of acetate significantly increased the abundance of Marinobacter in the HA group by 75.65 %.

MicroRNAs as Potential Biomarkers of Environmental Exposure to Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Their Link with Inflammation and Lung Cancer

Exposure to atmospheric air pollution containing volatile organic compounds such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) has been shown to be a risk factor in the induction of lung inflammation and the initiation and progression of lung cancer. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small single-stranded non-coding RNA molecules of ~20-22 nucleotides that regulate different physiological processes, and their altered expression is implicated in various pathophysiological conditions. Recent studies have shown that the regulation of gene expression of miRNAs can be affected in diseases associated with outdoor air pollution, meaning they could also be useful as biomarkers of exposure to environmental pollution. In this article, we review the published evidence on miRNAs in relation to exposure to PAH pollution and discuss the possible mechanisms that may link these compounds with the expression of miRNAs.

Emission factors for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from laboratory biomass-burning and their chemical transformations during aging in an oxidation flow reactor

Atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) can be emitted from different combustion sources including domestic biomass burning, internal combustion engines, and biomass burning (BB) in wild, prescribed, and agricultural fires. With climate warming and consequent global increases in frequency and severity of wildfires, BB is a dominant source of PAHs emitted into the atmosphere. In this study, six globally and regionally important and representative fuels (Alaskan peat, Moscow peat, Pskov peat, eucalyptus, Malaysian peat, and Malaysian agricultural peat) were burned under controlled conditions in the combustion chamber facility at the Desert Research Institute (DRI, Reno, NV, USA). Gas- and particle-phase BB emissions were aged in an oxidation flow reactor (OFR) to mimic five to sevendays of atmospheric aging. To sample gas- and particle-phase BB emissions, fresh and OFR-aged biomass-burning aerosols were collected on Teflon-impregnated glass fiber filters (TIGF) in tandem with XAD resin media for organic carbon speciation. The objectives of this study were to i) quantify the emission factors for 113 PAHs emitted from the combustion of the six selected fuels, ii) characterize the distribution of PAH compounds between gas and particle phases for these fuels, iii) identify the changes in PAHs during OFR-aging, and iv) evaluate toxicity potential with characterized compounds. We found that combustion emissions of gas-phase PAHs were more abundant (>80 % by mass) than particle-phase PAHs, for emissions from all combusted fuels. The mass fraction of substituted napthalenes in Moscow peat and Malaysian peat emissions were ∼70 % & 84 %, respectively, whereas in Eucalyptus the same fraction was <50 %, which indicates that these substituted compounds can be used as tracers for peat emissions. Mass concentrations of gas- and particle-phase PAHs were reduced by ∼70 % after OFR oxidation. However, the understanding of the fate of PAHs during OFR oxidation requires further investigations. Our results also indicate that the PAH toxicity of BB samples would be underestimated by 10-100 times if only the BaPeq for the 16 US EPA priority PAHs in the particle phase are included.

Recent Progress in Cyclic Aryliodonium Chemistry: Syntheses and Applications

Hypervalent aryliodoumiums are intensively investigated as arylating agents. They are excellent surrogates to aryl halides, and moreover they exhibit better reactivity, which allows the corresponding arylation reactions to be performed under mild conditions. In the past decades, acyclic aryliodoniums are widely explored as arylation agents. However, the unmet need for acyclic aryliodoniums is the improvement of their notoriously low reaction economy because the coproduced aryl iodides during the arylation are often wasted. Cyclic aryliodoniums have their intrinsic advantage in terms of reaction economy, and they have started to receive considerable attention due to their valuable synthetic applications to initiate cascade reactions, which can enable the construction of complex structures, including polycycles with potential pharmaceutical and functional properties. Here, we are summarizing the recent advances made in the research field of cyclic aryliodoniums, including the nascent design of aryliodonium species and their synthetic applications. First, the general preparation of typical diphenyl iodoniums is described, followed by the construction of heterocyclic iodoniums and monoaryl iodoniums. Then, the initiated arylations coupled with subsequent domino reactions are summarized to construct polycycles. Meanwhile, the advances in cyclic aryliodoniums for building biaryls including axial atropisomers are discussed in a systematic manner. Finally, a very recent advance of cyclic aryliodoniums employed as halogen-bonding organocatalysts is described.

Long-Term and Seasonal Changes in Sources of Urban Atmospheric Particulates in the Western Pacific

To reduce atmospheric pollutants, the sources need to be identified. To this end, combustion-derived particulates (Pc) in atmospheric suspended particulate matter (TSP) in ten Western Pacific cities from 1997 to 2018 were analyzed using the NP method, which we have recently developed. The method separates Pc into particulates originating from high-temperature (Ph) and low-temperature (Pl) combustion sources. Using this method, ten cities in the Asia-Pacific region were separated into three classes. Class 1: commercial cities whose major contributor to Pc was from vehicles, and which showed lower [Pc] values with larger [Ph]/[Pc] ratios. Sapporo, Kanazawa, Tokyo, Sagamihara (Japan), Shanghai (China), and Busan (Korea) were contained in this class. Class 2: cities whose main source of Pc was from coal heating, and which showed much higher winter [Pc] with larger [Pl]/[Pc] ratios. Beijing, Shenyang (China), and Vladivostok (Russia) were contained in this class. Class 3: steel manufacturing city which showed lower [Pc] with larger [Pl]/[Pc] ratio. The low [Pc] appeared to be due to elimination of Pl from coke oven plants. Only Kitakyushu was contained in this class. This study has elucidated the contribution of sources to urban atmospheric TSP in the Western Pacific that was previously unknown. Overall [Pc] was decreasing in this region, mainly due to the decreasing contribution of vehicles to Pc, but not due to a decrease in coal combustion.

Dose-effect and structure-activity relationships of haloquinoline toxicity towards Vibrio fischeri

Many quinoline (QL) derivatives are present in the environment and pose potential threats to human health and ecological safety. The acute toxicity of 30 haloquinolines (HQs) was examined using the photobacterium Vibrio fischeri. IC₅₀ values (inhibitory concentration for 50% luminescence elimination) were in the range 5.52 to >200 mg·L^-1. The derivative 5-BrQL exhibited the highest toxicity, with 3-ClQL, 3-BrQL, 4-BrQL, 5-BrQL, 6-BrQL, and 6-IQL all having IC₅₀ values below 10 mg·L^-1. Comparative molecular field analysis modeling based on the steric and electrostatic field properties of the HQs was used to quantify the impact of halogen substituents on their toxicity. QL derivative rings with larger substituents at the 2/8-positions and less negative charge at the 4/5/6/8-positions were positively correlated with acute toxicity towards V. fischeri.

What is necessary for next-generation atmospheric environmental standards? Recent research trends for PM2.5 -bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and their derivatives

The air pollution associated with PM_2.5 kills 7 million people every year in the world, especially threatening the health of children in developing countries. However, the current air quality standards depend mainly on particle size. PM_2.5 contains many carcinogenic/mutagenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and their derivatives such as nitropolycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and oxygenated PAHs. Among them, environmental standards and guidelines have been set for benzo[a]pyrene by few countries and international organizations. Recent research reports showed that these pollutants are linked to diseases other than lungs, and new methods have been developed for determining trace levels of not only PAHs but also their derivatives. It is time to think about the next-generation environmental standards. This article aims to (a) describe recent studies on the health effects of PAHs and their derivatives other than cancer, (b) describe new analytical methods for PAH derivatives, and (c) discuss the targets for the next-generation standards.

Calculating sources of combustion-derived particulates using 1-nitropyrene and pyrene as markers

Airborne particulate matter (PM) contains numerous hazardous polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) as well as their functionalized congeners. However, the lack of useful methods to identify the sources of PM has hindered the development of researches in atmospheric and public health fields. This report proposes a new method for estimating the source contribution of combustion-derived particulate (P_c) by using 1-nitropyrene (1-NP) and pyrene (Pyr) as markers. This is premised on the fact that the formation of nitrogen oxides in the flame gas and the subsequent nitration of PAHs are functions of combustion temperature and therefore the concentration ratios of NPAHs to PAHs are highly temperature dependent. This method divides combustion sources into two groups - high and low temperatures - which here are respectively represented by automobile engine and coal combustion in urban areas. Formulae are derived for combustion-derived particulate (P_c), whose fraction in the total particulate is y (0 < y < 1), and particulates from combustion sources with high temperatures (P_h), whose fraction in P_c is x (0 < x < 1), and low temperatures (P_l), whose fraction is (1 －x). When concentrations of 1-NP and Pyr in P_h and P_l are known, values x and y can be calculated from the formulae by determining atmospheric 1-NP and Pyr concentrations at monitoring sites. Then atmospheric concentrations of P_c, P_h and P_l can be calculated. The proposed method has been applied for total suspended particulate matter (TSP) samples collected in Kanazawa and Kitakyushu (Japan) and Beijing (China) having different types of atmospheric pollution to clarify the change of contributions of automobiles and coal combustion.