Does a Photocatalytic Synergy in an Anatase-Rutile TiO2Composite Thin-Film Exist?

Synthesis of vacancy-rich titania particles suitable for the additive manufacturing of ceramics

In the last decades, titania (or TiO₂) particles played a crucial role in the development of photo-catalysis and better environmentally-friendly energy-harvesting techniques. In this work, we engineer a new generation of TiO₂ particles rich in oxygen vacancies using a modified sol–gel synthesis. By design, these vacancy-rich particles efficiently absorb visible light to allow carefully-controlled light-induced conversion to the anatase or rutile crystalline phases. FTIR and micro-Raman spectroscopy reveal the formation of oxygen vacancies during conversion and explain this unique laser-assisted crystallization mechanism. We achieve low-energy laser-assisted crystallization in ambient environment using a modified filament 3D printer equipped with a low-power laser printhead. Since the established high-temperature treatment necessary to convert to crystalline TiO₂ is ill-suited to additive manufacturing platforms, this work removes a major fundamental hurdle and opens whole new vistas of possibilities towards the additive manufacturing of ceramics, including carefully-engineered crystalline TiO₂ substrates with potential applications for new and better photo-catalysis, fuel cells and energy-harvesting technologies.

Visualization and Quantification of the Laser-Induced ART of TiO2 by Photoexcitation of Adsorbed Dyes

Dye-pretreated anatase TiO₂ films, commonly used as photoanodes in dye-sensitized solar cells, were utilized as a model system to investigate the laser-induced anatase to rutile phase transformation (ART), using N719 dye, N749 dye, D149 dye, and MC540 dye as photosensitizers. The visible lasers (532 and 785 nm) used for Raman spectroscopy were able to transform pure anatase into rutile at the laser spot when excitation of the dye sensitizer caused an electron injection from the excited state of the dye molecule into the conduction band of TiO₂. The three dyes with carboxylic acid anchor groups (N719, N749, and D149 dyes) experienced ART upon dye excitation; diffuse reflectance infrared Fourier transform spectroscopy (DRIFTS) and Raman spectra validated that these dyes were chemisorbed to the semiconductor surface. The MC540 dye with a sulfonic acid anchor group did not experience ART, and the DRIFTS and Raman spectra were inconclusive about the chemisorption of this dye to TiO₂. A TiO₂ calibration curve and percent rutile contour plots developed for this project are able to quantify the amount of rutile created at the surface of the samples. These improved chemical images which map rutile concentration help to visualize how ART propagates from the center of the laser spot to the surroundings. Factors such as visible-light absorption and anchor groups that covalently bind to the semiconductor play a key role in effective laser-induced ART.

Pathways to Tailor Photocatalytic Performance of TiO2 Thin Films Deposited by Reactive Magnetron Sputtering

TiO₂ thin films are used extensively for a broad range of applications including environmental remediation, self-cleaning technologies (windows, building exteriors, and textiles), water splitting, antibacterial, and biomedical surfaces. While a broad range of methods such as wet-chemical synthesis techniques, chemical vapor deposition (CVD), and physical vapor deposition (PVD) have been developed for preparation of TiO₂ thin films, PVD techniques allow a good control of the homogeneity and thickness as well as provide a good film adhesion. On the other hand, the choice of the PVD technique enormously influences the photocatalytic performance of the TiO₂ layer to be deposited. Three important parameters play an important role on the photocatalytic performance of TiO₂ thin films: first, the different pathways in crystallization (nucleation and growth); second, anatase/rutile formation; and third, surface area at the interface to the reactants. This study aims to provide a review regarding some strategies developed by our research group in recent years to improve the photocatalytic performance of TiO₂ thin films. An innovative approach, which uses thermally induced nanocrack networks as an effective tool to enhance the photocatalytic performance of sputter deposited TiO₂ thin films, is presented. Plasmonic and non-plasmonic enhancement of photocatalytic performance by decorating TiO₂ thin films with metallic nanostructures are also briefly discussed by case studies. In addition to remediation applications, a new approach, which utilizes highly active photocatalytic TiO₂ thin film for micro- and nanostructuring, is also presented.

Self-organized nanocrack networks: a pathway to enlarge catalytic surface area in sputtered ceramic thin films, showcased for photocatalytic TiO2

Sputter deposited photocatalytic thin films offer high adherence and mechanical stability, but typically are outperformed in their photocatalytic properties by colloidal TiO₂ nanostructures, which in turn typically suffer from problematic removal. Here we report on thermally controlled nanocrack formation as a feasible and batch applicable approach to enhance the photocatalytic performance of well adhering, reactively sputtered TiO₂ thin films. Networks of nanoscopic cracks were induced into tailored columnar TiO₂ thin films by thermal annealing. These deep trenches are separating small bundles of TiO₂ columns, adding their flanks to the overall catalytically active surface area. The variation of thin film thickness reveals a critical layer thickness for initial nanocrack network formation, which was found to be about 400 nm in case of TiO₂. The columnar morphology of the as deposited TiO₂ layer with weak bonds between respective columns and with strong bonds to the substrate is of crucial importance for the formation of nanocrack networks. A beneficial effect of nanocracking on the photocatalytic performance was experimentally observed. It was correlated by a simple geometric model for explaining the positive impact of the crack induced enlargement of active surface area on photocatalytic efficiency. The presented method of nanocrack network formation is principally not limited to TiO₂ and is therefore seen as a promising candidate for utilizing increased surface area by controlled crack formation in ceramic thin films in general.

Construction of strontium tantalate homo-semiconductor composite photocatalysts with a tunable type II junction structure for overall water splitting

The presence of at least two different strontium tantalates with a type II junction structure for efficient photocatalytic overall water splitting.

Fabrication of mixed phase TiO2 heterojunction nanorods and their enhanced photoactivities

Substantial efforts have been made in recent times in solving the major limiting factors affecting the efficiency of a photocatalyst. The fabrication of efficient junction architectures is one of the viable approaches to resolve this setback. We have developed a facile and systematic approach for the synthesis of anatase TiO2 () nanoparticles and 1-D anatase and rutile TiO2 () heterojunction nanorods to enhance the interfacial contact area by adjusting the titanium(iv) butoxide (TBOT) to titanium chloride (TiCl4) volume ratio. Their narrower band gap, increasing surface area and anatase phase composition engineered by adjusting the relative concentrations of titanium butoxide (TBOT) and titanium chloride (TiCl4) (TBOT/TiCl4, 1 : 0, 1 : 0.25, 1 : 1 and 1 : 4 v/v for , , and respectively) are also addressed. The materials showed impressive photocatalytic activity for H2 evolution from water/methanol and the photodegradation of organic pollutants like rhodamine B (RhB) and methylene blue (MB) dyes. showed superior activity (16.4 mmol g(-1) h(-1)) with an apparent quantum efficiency (AQE) of 7.7% together with its long-term stability. This is attributed to the synergistic effect observed in the mixed phase nanorod heterojunction photocatalyst. Methyl viologen (MV(2+)) has been used as a probe to elucidate the photocatalytic activities and highlight the heterojunction driven separation of photo-excited charge carriers for enhanced hydrogen production.

A P25/(NH4)xWO3 hybrid photocatalyst with broad spectrum photocatalytic properties under UV, visible, and near-infrared irradiation

In this study, a series of hybrid nanostructured photocatalysts P25/(NH₄)_xWO₃ nanocomposites with the average crystallite size of P25 and (NH₄)_xWO₃ of the sample was calculated to be about 30 nm and 130 nm, were successfully synthesized via a simple one-step hydrothermal method. The as-obtained samples was characterized by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), which implies that the P25/(NH₄)_xWO₃ nanocomposites are fabricated with favourable nanosizd interfacial. The XPS results confirmed that the obtained sample consists of mixed chemical valences of W⁵⁺ and W⁶⁺, the low-valance W⁵⁺ sites could be the origin of NIR absorption. As revealed by optical absorption results, P25/(NH₄)_xWO₃ nanocomposites possess high optical absorption in the whole solar spectrum of 200–2500 nm. Benefiting from this unique photo-absorption property and the synergistic effect of P25 and (NH₄)_xWO₃, broad spectrum response photocatalytic activities covering UV, visible and near infrared regions on degradation of Rhodamine B have been realized by P25/(NH₄)_xWO₃ nanocomposites. Meanwhile, the stability of photocatalysts was examined by the XRD and XPS of the photocatalysts after the reaction. The results show that P25/(NH₄)_xWO₃ photocatalysts has a brilliant application prospect in the energy utilization to solve deteriorating environmental issues.

High surface area TiO2 nanoparticles by a freeze-drying approach for dye-sensitized solar cells

Titanium dioxide (TiO₂) synthesized by freeze drying of a TiO₂ precursor–polyester composite followed by sintering and its performance when employed in dye-sensitized solar cells.

Nanoscale investigation of photoinduced hydrophilicity variations in anatase and rutile nanopowders

The photoactive properties of TiO2 are employed to develop surfaces with self-cleaning capabilities. Clearly, the fine-tuning of such surfaces for different applications relies on a holistic understanding of the different aspects that induce the self-cleaning behavior. Among those, the mechanisms responsible for the photoinduced surface alteration in the TiO2 allotropes are still not completely understood. In this study, TiO2 polymorphs nanopowders are investigated by combining the high spatial resolution observables of recently developed atomic force microscopy (AFM) based force spectroscopy techniques with diffuse reflection infrared Fourier transform spectroscopy (DRIFTS). Phase maps under irradiated and nonirradiated conditions for anatase and rutile suggest the existence of two distinct behaviors that are further discerned by energy analysis of amplitude and phase vs distance curves. Independently, surface analysis of anatase and rutile by means of DRIFTS spectroscopy reveals a readily distinguishable coexistence of dissociated water and molecular water on the two phases, confirming the stronger photoactivity of anatase. The peculiarity of the surface interaction under UV exposure is further investigated by reconstructing the force profiles between the oscillating AFM tip and the TiO2 phases with the attempt of gaining a better understanding of the mechanisms that cause the different hydrophilic properties in the TiO2 allotropes.

Combinatorial atmospheric pressure chemical vapor deposition of graded TiO₂-VO₂ mixed-phase composites and their dual functional property as self-cleaning and photochromic window coatings

A combinatorial film with a phase gradient from V:TiO₂ (V: Ti ≥ 0.08), through a range of TiO₂-VO₂ composites, to a vanadium-rich composite (V: Ti = 1.81) was grown by combinatorial atmospheric pressure chemical vapor deposition (cAPCVD). The film was grown from the reaction of TiCl₄, VCl₄, ethyl acetate (EtAc), and H₂O at 550 °C on glass. The gradient in gas mixtures across the reactor induced compositional film growth, producing a single film with numerous phases and compositions at different positions. Seventeen unique positions distributed evenly along a central horizontal strip were investigated. The physical properties were characterized by wavelength dispersive X-ray (WDX) analysis, X-ray diffraction (XRD), Raman spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and UV-visible spectroscopy. The functional properties examined included the degree of photoinduced hydrophilicity (PIH), UVC-photocatalysis, and thermochromism. Superhydrophilic contact angles could be achieved at all positions, even within a highly VO₂-rich composite (V: Ti = 1.81). A maximum level of UVC photocatalysis was observed at a position bordering the solubility limit of V:TiO₂ (V: Ti ≈ 0.21) and fragmentation into a mixed-phase composite. Within the mixed-phase TiO₂: VO₂ composition region (V: Ti = 1.09 to 1.81) a decrease in the semiconductor-to-metal transition temperature of VO₂ from 68 to 51 °C was observed.