Benchmarking of Halogen Bond Strength in Solution with Nickel Fluorides: Bromine versus Iodine and Perfluoroaryl versus Perfluoroalkyl Donors

Multiple non-covalent-interaction-directed supramolecular double helices: the orthogonality of hydrogen, halogen and chalcogen bonding

In this study, a benzoselenadiazole- and pyridine-bifunctionalized hydrogen-bonded arylamide foldamer was synthesized. A co-crystallization experiment with 1,4-diiodotetrafluorobenzene showed that a new type of supramolecular double helices, which were induced by three orthogonal interactions, namely, three-center hydrogen bonding (O⋯H⋯O), I⋯N halogen bonding and Se⋯N chalcogen bonding, have been constructed in the solid state. This work presents a novel instance of multiple non-covalent interactions that work together to construct supramolecular architectures.

Solution and solid-state studies of hydrogen and halogen bonding with N-heterocyclic carbene supported nickel(II) fluoride complexes

Nickel fluoride complexes of the type [Ni(F)(L)2(ArF)] (L = phosphine, ArF = fluorinated arene) are well-known to form strong halogen and hydrogen bonds in solution and in the solid state. A comprehensive study of such non-covalent interactions using bis(carbene) complexes as acceptors and suitable halogen and hydrogen bond donors is presented. In solution, the complex [Ni(F)(iPr2Im)2(C6F5)] forms halogen and hydrogen bonds with iodopentafluorobenzene and indole, respectively, which have formation constants (K300) an order of magnitude greater than those of structurally related phosphine supported nickel fluorides. Co-crystallisation of this complex and its backbone-methylated analogue [Ni(F)(iPr2Me2Im)2(C6F5)] with 1,4-diiodotetrafluorobenzene produces halogen bonding adducts which were characterised by X-ray analysis and 19F MAS solid state NMR analysis. Differences in the chemical shifts between the nickel fluoride and its halogen bonding adduct are well in line with data that were obtained from titration studies in solution.

The Realm of Unconventional Noncovalent Interactions in Proteins: Their Significance in Structure and Function

Proteins and their assemblies are fundamental for living cells to function. Their complex three-dimensional architecture and its stability are attributed to the combined effect of various noncovalent interactions. It is critical to scrutinize these noncovalent interactions to understand their role in the energy landscape in folding, catalysis, and molecular recognition. This Review presents a comprehensive summary of unconventional noncovalent interactions, beyond conventional hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions, which have gained prominence over the past decade. The noncovalent interactions discussed include low-barrier hydrogen bonds, C5 hydrogen bonds, C-H···π interactions, sulfur-mediated hydrogen bonds, n → π* interactions, London dispersion interactions, halogen bonds, chalcogen bonds, and tetrel bonds. This Review focuses on their chemical nature, interaction strength, and geometrical parameters obtained from X-ray crystallography, spectroscopy, bioinformatics, and computational chemistry. Also highlighted are their occurrence in proteins or their complexes and recent advances made toward understanding their role in biomolecular structure and function. Probing the chemical diversity of these interactions, we determined that the variable frequency of occurrence in proteins and the ability to synergize with one another are important not only for ab initio structure prediction but also to design proteins with new functionalities. A better understanding of these interactions will promote their utilization in designing and engineering ligands with potential therapeutic value.

Keggin-Type Anions as Halogen Bond Acceptors

To study the potential of Keggin-type polyoxometalate anions to act as halogen bond acceptors, we have prepared a series of 10 halogen-bonded compounds starting from phosphomolybdic and phosphotungstic acid and halogenopyridinium cations as halogen (and hydrogen) bond donors. In all the structures, the cations and the anions were interconnected by halogen bonds, more often with terminal M=O oxygen atoms than with bridging oxygen atoms as acceptors. In four structures comprising protonated iodopyridinium cations capable of forming both hydrogen and halogen bonds with the anion, the halogen bond with the anion is apparently favored, whereas hydrogen bonds preferentially involve other acceptors present in the structure. In three obtained structures derived from phosphomolybdic acid, the corresponding oxoanion has been found in its reduced state [Mo₁₂PO₄₀]^4-, which has also led to a decrease in halogen bond lengths as compared to the fully oxidated [Mo₁₂PO₄₀]^3-. The electrostatic potential on the three types of anions involved in the study ([Mo₁₂PO₄₀]^3-, [Mo₁₂PO₄₀]^4-, and [W₁₂PO₄₀]^3-) has been calculated for optimized geometries of the anions, and it has been shown that the terminal M=O oxygen atoms are the least negative sites of the anions, indicating that they act as halogen bond acceptors primarily due to their steric availability.

Solid-State 19F NMR Chemical Shift in Square-Planar Nickel-Fluoride Complexes Linked by Halogen Bonds

The halogen bond (XB) is a highly directional class of noncovalent interactions widely explored by experimental and computational studies. However, the NMR signature of the XB has attracted limited attention. The prediction and analysis of the solid-state NMR (SSNMR) chemical shift tensor provide useful strategies to better understand XB interactions. In this work, we employ a computational protocol for modeling and analyzing the ¹⁹F SSNMR chemical shifts previously measured in a family of square-planar trans Ni^II-L₂-iodoaryl-fluoride (L = PEt₃) complexes capable of forming self-complementary networks held by a NiF···I(C) halogen bond [Thangavadivale, V.; Chem. Sci. 2018, 9, 3767-3781]. To understand how the ¹⁹F NMR resonances of the nickel-bonded fluoride are affected by the XB, we investigate the origin of the shielding in trans-[NiF(2,3,5,6-C₆F₄I)(PEt₃)₂], trans-[NiF(2,3,4,5-C₆F₄I)(PEt₃)₂], and trans-[NiF(C₆F₅)(PEt₃)₂] in the solid state, where a XB is present in the two former systems but not in the last. We perform the ¹⁹F NMR chemical shift calculations both in periodic and molecular models. The results show that the crystal packing has little influence on the NMR signatures of the XB, and the NMR can be modeled successfully with a pair of molecules interacting via the XB. Thus, the observed difference in chemical shift between solid-state and solution NMR can be essentially attributed to the XB interaction. The very high shielding of the fluoride and its driving contributor, the most shielded component of the chemical shift tensor, are well reproduced at the 2c-ZORA level. Analysis of the factors controlling the shielding shows how the highest occupied Ni/F orbitals shield the fluoride in the directions perpendicular to the Ni-F bond and specifically perpendicular to the coordination plane. This shielding arises from the magnetic coupling of the Ni(3d)/F(2p lone pair) orbitals with the vacant σ_Ni-F^* orbital, thereby rationalizing the very highly upfield (shielded) resonance of the component (δ₃₃) along this direction. We show that these features are characteristic of square-planar nickel-fluoride complexes. The deshielding of the fluoride in the halogen-bonded systems is attributed to an increase in the energy gap between the occupied and vacant orbitals that are mostly responsible for the paramagnetic terms, notably along the most shielded direction.

Synthesis of [2+2] Schiff base macrocycles by a solvent templating strategy and halogen bonding directed assembly

Schiff base imine condensations are a useful tool for macrocycle synthesis and applications within supramolecular chemistry. Here we address the mixtures of products that can arise from template free synthesis using dicarbonylheterocycles and diamines, and look to develop metal-free template methods for selective macrocycle formation. A range of alkyl α,ω-diamines were combined with phenanthroline and pyridine heterocyclic dicarbaldehydes under standard literature conditions. The reaction conditions were modified to demonstrate a relationship between choice of solvent and product equilibria. It was observed that benzene and toluene could shift a mixture of products and unreacted starting materials to form predominantly one imine product for a number of systems. Once the macrocyclic products had been characterized in selected solvents, iodinated halogen bonding guest molecules were added to direct macrocycle assemblies using non-covalent interactions. Studies to investigate host – guest suitability and halogen bond interactions were conducted, and it was found that tetraiodoethylene had an influence on the formation of a phenanthroline based macrocycle. Proof of concept experiments were performed to show the influence of the guest molecule, tetraiodoethylene, on the macrocyclic products formed under competitive dynamic combinatorial chemistry conditions.

Assessing the effects of covalent, dative and halogen bonds on the electronic structure of selenoamides

The C–NMe2 bond rotation of a selenoamide is proposed as an experimental probe to compare different chemical interactions.

Halogen and Hydrogen Bond Motifs in Ionic Cocrystals Derived from 3-Halopyridinium Halogenides and Perfluorinated Iodobenzenes

Four halopyridinium salts, 3-chloro- and 3-bromopyridinium chlorides and bromides, have been successfully cocrystallized with two ditopic perfluorinated iodobenzenes, 1,4-diiodotetrafluorobenzene and 1,2-diiodotetrafluorobenzene. These halogen bond donor molecules were chosen because the different positionings of halogen bond donor atoms can lead to different supramolecular architectures. In this work, we present insight into the halogen bond acceptor potential of chloride and bromide ions, as well as the halogen bond donor potential of chlorine and bromine atoms substituted on the pyridinium ring when combined with the expectedly very strong hydrogen bonds between halopyridinium ions and free halogenide anions. A series of eight cocrystals were obtained in which three pairs of isostructural cocrystals were formed. Dominant interactions in the obtained cocrystals were charge-assisted hydrogen bonds between halopyridinium cations and halogenide ions as well as halogen bonds between halogen atoms on the pyridinium ring and halogenide ions.

F-Halogen Bond: Conditions for Its Existence

The question as to whether the F atom can engage in a halogen bond (XB) remains unsettled. This issue is addressed via density functional theory calculations which pair a wide range of organic and inorganic F-acids with various sorts of Lewis bases. From an energetic perspective, perfluorinated hydrocarbons with sp, sp², or sp³ C-hybridization are unable to form an XB with an N-base, but a very weak bond can be formed if electron-withdrawing C≡N substituents are added to the acid. There is little improvement for inorganic acids O₂NF, FOF, ClF, BrF, SiF₄, or GeF₄, but F₂ is capable of a stronger XB of up to 5 kcal/mol. These results are consistent with a geometric criterion, which compares the intermolecular equilibrium distance with the sum of atomic van der Waals radii. The intensity of the σ-hole on the F atom has predictive value in that a V_s,max of at least 10-15 kcal/mol is required for XB formation. Adding a positive charge to the Lewis acid enhances the strength of any XB and even more so if the base is anionic. The acid-base interaction induces a contraction of the r(AF) covalent bond in the acid in most cases and a deshielding of the NMR signal of the F nucleus.

A Comparative Study on the Thermodynamics of Halogen Bonding of Group 10 Pincer Fluoride Complexes

The thermodynamics of halogen bonding of a series of isostructural Group 10 metal pincer fluoride complexes of the type [(3,5‐R₂‐^tBuPOCOP^tBu)MF] (3,5‐R₂‐^tBuPOCOP^tBu=κ³‐C₆HR₂‐2,6‐(OPtBu₂)₂ with R=H, tBu, COOMe; M=Ni, Pd, Pt) and iodopentafluorobenzene was investigated. Based on NMR experiments at different temperatures, all complexes 1‐tBu (R=tBu, M=Ni), 2‐H (R=H, M=Pd), 2‐tBu (R=tBu, M=Pd), 2‐COOMe (R=COOMe, M=Pd) and 3‐tBu (R=tBu, M=Pt) form strong halogen bonds with Pd complexes showing significantly stronger binding to iodopentafluorobenzene. Structural and computational analysis of a model adduct of complex 2‐tBu with 1,4‐diiodotetrafluorobenzene as well as of structures of iodopentafluorobenzene in toluene solution shows that formation of a type I contact occurs.

Halogen bonding (HaB) in E–I⋯X–M systems: influence of the halogen donor on the HaB nature

A study on how the covalent character of the halogen bond can be modulated by using different halogen donors.

Halogen and Hydrogen Bonding in Halogenabenzene/NH3 Complexes Compared Using Next-Generation QTAIM

Next-generation quantum theory of atoms in molecules (QTAIM) was used to investigate the competition between hydrogen bonding and halogen bonding for the recently proposed (Y = Br, I, At)/halogenabenzene/NH3 complex. Differences between using the SR-ZORA Hamiltonian and effective core potentials (ECPs) to account for relativistic effects with increased atomic mass demonstrated that next-generation QTAIM is a much more responsive tool than conventional QTAIM. Subtle details of the competition between halogen bonding and hydrogen bonding were observed, indicating a mixed chemical character shown in the 3-D paths constructed from the bond-path framework set B. In addition, the use of SR-ZORA reduced or entirely removed spurious features of B on the site of the halogen atoms.

Benchmarking of Halogen Bond Strength in Solution with Nickel Fluorides: Bromine versus Iodine and Perfluoroaryl versus Perfluoroalkyl Donors

The energetics of halogen bond formation in solution have been investigated for a series of nickel fluoride halogen bond acceptors; trans-[NiF(2-C5 NF4 )(PEt3 )2 ] (A1), trans-[NiF{2-C5 NF3 (4-H)}(PEt3 )2 ] (A2), trans-[NiF{2-C5 NF3 (4-NMe2 )}(PEt3 )2 ] (A3) and trans-[NiF{2-C5 NF2 H(4-CF3 )}(PCy3 )2 ] (A4) with neutral organic halogen bond donors, iodopentafluorobenzene (D1), 1-iodononafluorobutane (D2) and bromopentafluorobenzene (D3), in order to establish the significance of changes from perfluoroaryl to perfluoroalkyl donors and from iodine to bromine donors. 19 F NMR titration experiments have been employed to obtain the association constants, enthalpy, and entropy for the halogen bond formed between these donor-acceptor partners in protiotoluene. For A2-A4, association constants of the halogen bonds formed with iodoperfluoroalkane (D2) are consistently larger than those obtained for analogous complexes with the iodoperfluoroarene (D1). For complexes formed with A2-A4, the strength of the halogen bond is significantly lowered upon modification of the halogen donor atom from I (in D1) to Br (in D3) (for D1: 5≤K285 ≤12 m-1 , for D3: 1.0≤K193 ≤1.6 m-1 ). The presence of the electron donating NMe2 substituent on the pyridyl ring of acceptor A3 led to an increase in -ΔH, and the association constants of the halogen bond complexes formed with D1-D3, compared to those formed by A1, A2 and A4 with the same donors.