Altered Membrane Mechanics Provides a Receptor-Independent Pathway for Serotonin Action

Molecules in the Serotonin-Melatonin Synthesis Pathway Have Distinct Interactions with Lipid Membranes

The neurotransmitter serotonin is involved in physiological processes such as appetite, sleep, and mood and diseases such as anxiety and depression. Traditionally, the effects of serotonin were thought to be initiated by binding to its target transmembrane receptors. It is also known that serotonin can bind directly to the membrane with high affinity and modulate lipid dynamics, lateral segregation of lipids, vesicular association, and membrane protein activity. We investigated if other small molecules in the serotonin metabolic pathway, some of which are known to be signaling molecules while some others are not, have similar membrane modulating effects. Therefore, we examined serotonin and several of its metabolites: 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP), serotonin, N-acetylserotonin (NAS), and melatonin in model membranes mimicking synaptic membranes. Using 2H NMR spectroscopy of deuterated 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POPC), we observed that all metabolites disorder the synaptic membrane-mimicking model membranes. The largest disordering effect was observed for NAS and the smallest for tryptophan. Using fluorescence correlation spectroscopy, it was found that only NAS promotes vesicular association similar to that of serotonin, while the others did not. Furthermore, we found that the serotonin metabolites differed in their membrane distribution by employing solid state 1H magic angle spinning nuclear Overhauser enhancement spectroscopy (NOESY) experiments in simple POPC membranes. Similar results were obtained in synaptic membrane mimics using molecular dynamics simulations. In conclusion, while the causal correlation between membrane modulation effects and membrane distribution for the serotonin metabolites remains elusive, this study suggests that small-molecule metabolites and drugs can have drastic biological effects mediated through the membrane. The finding that small changes in structure lead to very different membrane modulation and distributions suggests the possibility of developing membrane modulating drugs in the future.

Effects of a Serotonergic Psychedelic on the Lipid Bilayer

Serotonergic psychedelics, known for their hallucinogenic effects, have attracted interest due to their ability to enhance neuronal plasticity and potential therapeutic benefits. Although psychedelic-enhanced neuroplasticity is believed to require activation of 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin) 2A receptors (5-HT2ARs), serotonin itself is less effective in promoting such plasticity. Also, the psychoplastogenic effects of these molecules correlate with their lipophilicity, leading to suggestions that they act by influencing the intracellular receptors. However, their lipophilicity also implies that a significant quantity of lipids is accumulated in the lipid bilayer, potentially altering the physical properties of the membrane. Here, we probe whether the serotonergic psychedelic 2,5-dimethoxy-4-iodoamphetamine (DOI) can affect the properties of artificial lipid bilayers and if that can potentially affect processes such as membrane fusion. Solid-state NMR spectroscopy shows that the DOI strongly induces disorder in the lipid acyl chains. Atomic force microscopy shows that it can shrink the ordered domains in a biphasic lipid bilayer and can reduce the force needed to form nanopores in the membrane. Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy shows that DOI can promote vesicle association, and total internal fluorescence microscopy shows that it enhances vesicle fusion to a supported lipid bilayer. While serotonin has also recently been shown to cause similar effects, DOI is more than two orders of magnitude more potent in evoking these. Our results suggest that the receptor-independent effects of serotonergic psychedelics on lipid membranes may contribute to their biological actions, especially those that require significant membrane remodeling, such as neuronal plasticity.

Cholesterol-Dependent Serotonin Insertion Controlled by Gangliosides in Model Lipid Membranes

Serotonin is distinct among synaptic neurotransmitters because it is amphipathic and released from synaptic vesicles at concentrations superior to its water solubility limit (270 mM in synaptic vesicles for a solubility limit of 110 mM). Hence, serotonin is mostly aggregated in the synaptic cleft, due to extensive aromatic stacking. This important characteristic has received scant attention, as most representations of the serotonergic synapse take as warranted that serotonin molecules are present as monomers after synaptic vesicle exocytosis. Using a combination of in silico and physicochemical approaches and a new experimental device mimicking synaptic conditions, we show that serotonin aggregates are efficiently dissolved by gangliosides (especially GM1) present in postsynaptic membranes. This initial interaction, driven by electrostatic forces, attracts serotonin from insoluble aggregates and resolves micelles into monomers. Serotonin also interacts with cholesterol via a set of CH-π and van der Waals interactions. Thus, gangliosides and cholesterol act together as a functional serotonin-collecting funnel on brain cell membranes. Based on this unique mode of interaction with postsynaptic membranes, we propose a new model of serotonergic transmission that takes into account the post-exocytosis solubilizing effect of gangliosides and cholesterol on serotonin aggregates.

Phospholipid Membranes as Chemically and Functionally Tunable Materials

The sheet-like lipid bilayer is the fundamental structural component of all cell membranes. Its building blocks are phospholipids and cholesterol. Their amphiphilic structure spontaneously leads to the formation of a bilayer in aqueous environment. Lipids are not just structural elements. Individual lipid species, the lipid membrane structure, and lipid dynamics influence and regulate membrane protein function. An exciting field is emerging where the membrane-associated material properties of different bilayer systems are used in designing innovative solutions for widespread applications across various fields, such as the food industry, cosmetics, nano- and biomedicine, drug storage and delivery, biotechnology, nano- and biosensors, and computing. Here, the authors summarize what is known about how lipids determine the properties and functions of biological membranes and how this has been or can be translated into innovative applications. Based on recent progress in the understanding of membrane structure, dynamics, and physical properties, a perspective is provided on how membrane-controlled regulation of protein functions can extend current applications and even offer new applications.

Serotonin Promotes Vesicular Association and Fusion by Modifying Lipid Bilayers

The primary event in chemical neurotransmission involves the fusion of a membrane-limited vesicle at the plasma membrane and the subsequent release of its chemical neurotransmitter cargo. The cargo itself is not known to have any effect on the fusion event. However, amphiphilic monoamine neurotransmitters (e.g., serotonin and dopamine) are known to strongly interact with lipid bilayers and to affect their mechanical properties, which can in principle impact membrane-mediated processes. Here, we probe whether serotonin can enhance the association and fusion of artificial lipid vesicles in vitro. We employ fluorescence correlation spectroscopy and total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy to measure the attachment and fusion of vesicles whose lipid compositions mimic the major lipid components of synaptic vesicles. We find that the association between vesicles and supported lipid bilayers is strongly enhanced in a serotonin dose-dependent manner, and this drives an increase in the rate of spontaneous fusion. Molecular dynamics simulations and fluorescence spectroscopy data show that serotonin insertion increases the water content of the hydrophobic part of the bilayer. This suggests that the enhanced membrane association is likely driven by an energetically favorable drying transition. Other monoamines, such as dopamine and norepinephrine, but not other related species, such as tryptophan, show similar effects on membrane association. Our results reveal a lipid bilayer-mediated mechanism by which monoamines can themselves modulate vesicle fusion, potentially adding to the control toolbox for the tightly regulated process of neurotransmission in vivo.

Serotonin Signaling through Lipid Membranes

Serotonin (5-HT) is a vital modulatory neurotransmitter responsible for regulating most behaviors in the brain. An inefficient 5-HT synaptic function is often linked to various mental disorders. Primarily, membrane proteins controlling the expression and activity of 5-HT synthesis, storage, release, receptor activation, and inactivation are critical to 5-HT signaling in synaptic and extra-synaptic sites. Moreover, these signals represent information transmission across membranes. Although the lipid membrane environment is often viewed as fairly stable, emerging research suggests significant functional lipid-protein interactions with many synaptic 5-HT proteins. These protein-lipid interactions extend to almost all the primary lipid classes that form the plasma membrane. Collectively, these lipid classes and lipid-protein interactions affect 5-HT synaptic efficacy at the synapse. The highly dynamic lipid composition of synaptic membranes suggests that these lipids and their interactions with proteins may contribute to the plasticity of the 5-HT synapse. Therefore, this broader protein-lipid model of the 5-HT synapse necessitates a reconsideration of 5-HT's role in various associated mental disorders.

Membrane-Mediated Allosteric Action of Serotonin on a Noncognate G-Protein-Coupled Receptor

The structure and dynamics of the lipid membrane can affect the activity of membrane proteins. Therefore, small lipophilic molecules that alter membrane properties (such as the neurotransmitter serotonin) can potentially modulate receptor activity without binding to the receptor. Here, we investigated how the activity of neuropeptide Y type 4 receptor (Y4R, reconstituted in lipid bicelles) is modulated by serotonin, which has no known interaction with Y4R. We found a serotonin-concentration-dependent decrease (down to 0.1 mM of serotonin) in the ligand affinity of Y4R. This effect correlates with a serotonin-induced reduction of the resistance of the bilayer to indentation (measured by atomic force microscopy) and bilayer thickness (measured by solid state NMR) in two different types of zwitterionic lipid bicelles. Our findings indicate a "membrane-mediated allosteric effect" of serotonin on the activation of Y4R and suggest the potential for developing pharmacophores, which can modulate cellular signaling without directly interacting with any receptor.

Location of dopamine in lipid bilayers and its relevance to neuromodulator function

Dopamine (DA) is a neurotransmitter that also acts as a neuromodulator, with both functions being essential to brain function. Here, we present the first experimental measurement of DA location in lipid bilayers using x-ray diffuse scattering, solid-state deuterium NMR, and electron paramagnetic resonance. We find that the association of DA with lipid headgroups as seen in electron density profiles leads to an increase of intermembrane repulsion most likely due to electrostatic charging. DA location in the lipid headgroup region also leads to an increase of the cross-sectional area per lipid without affecting the bending rigidity significantly. The order parameters measured by solid-state deuterium NMR decrease in the presence of DA for the acyl chains of PC and PS lipids, consistent with an increase in the area per lipid due to DA. Most importantly, these results support the hypothesis that three-dimensional diffusion of DA to target membranes could be followed by relatively more efficient two-dimensional diffusion to receptors within those membranes.

Different membrane order measurement techniques are not mutually consistent

"Membrane order" is a term commonly used to describe the elastic and mechanical properties of the lipid bilayer, though its exact meaning is somewhat context- and method dependent. These mechanical properties of the membrane control many cellular functions and are measured using various biophysical techniques. Here, we ask if the results obtained from various techniques are mutually consistent. Such consistency cannot be assumed a priori because these techniques probe different spatial locations and different spatial and temporal scales. We evaluate the change of membrane order induced by serotonin using nine different techniques in lipid bilayers of three different compositions. Serotonin is an important neurotransmitter present at 100s of mM concentrations in neurotransmitter vesicles, and therefore its interaction with the lipid bilayer is biologically relevant. Our measurement tools include fluorescence of lipophilic dyes (Nile Red, Laurdan, TMA-DPH, DPH), whose properties are a function of membrane order; atomic force spectroscopy, which provides a measure of the force required to indent the lipid bilayer; 2H solid-state NMR spectroscopy, which measures the molecular order of the lipid acyl chain segments; fluorescence correlation spectroscopy, which provides a measure of the diffusivity of the probe in the membrane; and Raman spectroscopy, where spectral intensity ratios are affected by acyl chain order. We find that different measures often do not correlate with each other and sometimes even yield conflicting results. We conclude that no probe provides a general measure of membrane order and that any inference based on the change of membrane order measured by a particular probe may be unreliable.

Unusual Robustness of Neurotransmitter Vesicle Membranes against Serotonin-Induced Perturbations

Nature confines hundreds of millimolar of amphiphilic neurotransmitters, such as serotonin, in synaptic vesicles. This appears to be a puzzle, as the mechanical properties of lipid bilayer membranes of individual major polar lipid constituents of synaptic vesicles [phosphatidylcholine (PC), phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), and phosphatidylserine (PS)] are significantly affected by serotonin, sometimes even at few millimolar concentrations. These properties are measured by atomic force microscopy, and their results are corroborated by molecular dynamics simulations. Complementary ²H solid-state NMR measurements also show that the lipid acyl chain order parameters are strongly affected by serotonin. The resolution of the puzzle lies in the remarkably different properties displayed by the mixture of these lipids, at molar ratios mimicking those of natural vesicles (PC:PE:PS:Cholesterol = 3:5:2:5). Bilayers constituting of these lipids are minimally perturbed by serotonin, and show only a graded response at physiological concentrations (>100 mM). Significantly, the cholesterol (up to 33% molar ratio) plays only a minor role in dictating these mechanical perturbations, with PC:PE:PS:Cholesterol = 3:5:2:5 and 3:5:2:0 showing similar perturbations. We infer that nature uses an emergent mechanical property of a specific mixture of lipids, all individually vulnerable to serotonin, to appropriately respond to physiological serotonin levels.

Toward manipulating serotonin signaling via the microbiota-gut-brain axis

It is now well established in humans that there is a bidirectional pathway of communication between the central and enteric nervous systems in which members of the microbiome participate. This microbiota-gut-brain axis (MGBA) is crucial for normal development and physiology, and its dysregulation has been implicated in a range of neurological and intestinal disorders. Investigations into the mechanistic underpinnings of the MGBA have identified serotonin as a molecule of particular interest. In this review, we highlight recent advances toward understanding the role of endogenous serotonin in microbial communities, how microbial communities bidirectionally interact with host serotonin, and potential future engineering opportunities to leverage these novel mechanisms for biomedical applications.

Serotonergic drugs modulate the phase behavior of complex lipid bilayers

Serotonin is an endogenous neurotransmitter involved in both physiological and pathophysiological processes. Traditionally, serotonin acts as a ligand for G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) leading to subsequent cell signaling. However, serotonin can also bind to lipid membranes with high affinity and modulate the phase behavior in 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POPC)/N-palmitoyl-D-erythro-sphingosylphosphorylcholine (PSM)/cholesterol model membranes mimicking the outer leaflet of the plasma membrane. Here, we investigated if serotonergic drugs containing the pharmacophore from serotonin would also modulate phase behavior in lipid membranes in a similar fashion. We used ²H NMR spectroscopy to explore the phase behavior of POPC/PSM/cholesterol (4/4/2 molar ratio) mixtures in the presence of the serotonergic drugs aripiprazole, BRL-54443, BW-723C86, and CP-135807 at a lipid to drug molar ratio of 10:1. POPC and PSM were perdeuterated in the palmitoyl chain, respectively, and prepared in individual samples. Numerical lineshape simulations of the ²H NMR spectra were used to calculate the order parameter profiles and projected lengths of the saturated acyl chains. All serotonergic drugs induce two components in ²H NMR spectra, indicating that they increased the hydrophobic mismatch between the thickness of the coexisting lipid phases leading to larger domain sizes, relatively similarly to serotonin. AFM force indentation and Raman spectral studies, which interrogate membrane mechanical properties, also indicate changes in membrane order in the presence of these drugs. These findings highlight how serotonergic drugs alter membrane phase behavior and could modulate both target and other membrane proteins, possibly explaining the side effects observed for serotonergic and other clinically relevant drugs.

Magic mushroom extracts in lipid membranes

The active hallucinogen of magic mushrooms, psilocin, is being repurposed to treat nicotine addiction and treatment-resistant depression. Psilocin belongs to the tryptamine class of psychedelic compounds which include the hormone serotonin. It is believed that psilocin exerts its effect by binding to the serotonin 5-HT_2A receptor. However, recent in-vivo evidence suggests that psilocin may employ a different mechanism to exert its effects. Membrane-mediated receptor desensitization of neurotransmitter receptors is one such mechanism. We compare the impact of the neutral and charged versions of psilocin and serotonin on the properties of zwitterionic and anionic lipid membranes using molecular dynamics simulations and calorimetry. Both compounds partition to the lipid interface and induce membrane thinning. The tertiary amine in psilocin, as opposed to the primary amine in serotonin, limits psilocin's impact on the membrane although more psilocin partitions into the membrane than serotonin. Calorimetry corroborates that both compounds induce a classical melting point depression like anesthetics do. Our results also lend support to a membrane-mediated receptor-binding mechanism for both psilocin and serotonin and provide physical insights into subtle chemical changes that can alter the membrane-binding of psychedelic compounds.

The effect of cholesterol on highly curved membranes measured by nanosecond Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy

Small lipid vesicles (with diameter ≤ 100nm) with their highly curved membranes comprise a special class of biological lipid bilayers. The mechanical properties of such membranes are critical for their function, e.g. exocytosis. Cholesterol is a near-universal regulator of membrane properties in animal cells. Yet measurements of the effect of cholesterol on the mechanical properties of membranes have remained challenging, and the interpretation of such measurements has remained a matter of debate. Here we show that nanosecond fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) can directly measure the ns-microsecond rotational correlation time (τr) of a lipid probe in high curvature vesicles with extraordinary sensitivity. Using a home-built 4-Pi fluorescence cross-correlation spectrometer containing polarization-modulating elements, we measure the rotational correlation time (τr) of Nile Red in neurotransmitter vesicle mimics. As the cholesterol mole fraction increases from 0 to 50 %, τr increases from 17 ± 1 to 112 ± 12 ns, indicating a viscosity change of nearly a factor of 7. These measurements are corroborated by solid-state NMR results, which show that the order parameter of the lipid acyl chains increases by about 50% for the same change in cholesterol concentration. Additionally, we measured the spectral parameters of polarity-sensitive fluorescence dyes, which provide an indirect measure of viscosity. The green/red ratio of Nile Red and the generalized polarization of Laurdan show consistent increases of 1.3x and 2.6x, respectively. Our results demonstrate that rotational FCS can directly measure the viscosity of highly curved membranes with higher sensitivity and wider dynamic range compared to other conventional techniques. Significantly, we observe that the viscosity of neurotransmitter vesicle mimics is remarkably sensitive to their cholesterol content.

Serotonin: an overlooked regulator of endocytosis and endosomal sorting?

Serotonin is a neurotransmitter and a hormone that is typically associated with regulating our mood. However, the serotonin transporter and receptors are expressed throughout the body, highlighting the much broader, systemic role of serotonin in regulating human physiology. A substantial body of data strongly implicates serotonin as a fundamental regulator of endocytosis and endocytic sorting. Serotonin has the potential to enhance endocytosis through three distinct mechanisms - serotonin signalling, serotonylation and insertion into the plasma membrane - although the interplay and relationship between these mechanisms has not yet been explored. Endocytosis is central to the cellular response to the extracellular environment, controlling receptor distribution on the plasma membrane to modulate signalling, neurotransmitter release and uptake, circulating protein and lipid cargo uptake, and amino acid internalisation for cell proliferation. Uncovering the range of cellular and physiological circumstances in which serotonin regulates endocytosis is of great interest for our understanding of how serotonin regulates mood, and also the fundamental understanding of endocytosis and its regulation throughout the body. This article has an associated Future Leader to Watch interview with the first author of the paper.

Mechanistic Understanding from Molecular Dynamics in Pharmaceutical Research 2: Lipid Membrane in Drug Design

We review the use of molecular dynamics (MD) simulation as a drug design tool in the context of the role that the lipid membrane can play in drug action, i.e., the interaction between candidate drug molecules and lipid membranes. In the standard "lock and key" paradigm, only the interaction between the drug and a specific active site of a specific protein is considered; the environment in which the drug acts is, from a biophysical perspective, far more complex than this. The possible mechanisms though which a drug can be designed to tinker with physiological processes are significantly broader than merely fitting to a single active site of a single protein. In this paper, we focus on the role of the lipid membrane, arguably the most important element outside the proteins themselves, as a case study. We discuss work that has been carried out, using MD simulation, concerning the transfection of drugs through membranes that act as biological barriers in the path of the drugs, the behavior of drug molecules within membranes, how their collective behavior can affect the structure and properties of the membrane and, finally, the role lipid membranes, to which the vast majority of drug target proteins are associated, can play in mediating the interaction between drug and target protein. This review paper is the second in a two-part series covering MD simulation as a tool in pharmaceutical research; both are designed as pedagogical review papers aimed at both pharmaceutical scientists interested in exploring how the tool of MD simulation can be applied to their research and computational scientists interested in exploring the possibility of a pharmaceutical context for their research.

Interaction of the pitavastatin with model membranes

Pitavastatin is a statin drug that, by competitively inhibiting 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase, can lower serum cholesterol levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) accompanied by side effects due to pleiotropic effects leading to statin intolerance. These effects can be explained by the lipophilicity of statins, which creates membrane affinity and causes statin localization in cellular membranes. In the current report, the interaction of pitavastatin with POPC model membranes and its influence on the membrane structure were investigated using H, H and P solid-state NMR spectroscopy. Our experiments show the average localization of pitavastatin at the lipid/water interface of the membrane, which is biased towards the hydrocarbon core in comparison to other statin molecules. The membrane binding of pitavastatin also introduced an isotropic component into the ³¹P NMR powder spectra, suggesting that some of the lamellar POPC molecules are converted into highly curved structures.

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Solid-state NMR spectroscopy shows pitavastatin effect on the bilayer

•Pitavastatin lowers the POPC order parameters

•Pitavastatin localize in the upper chain of the POPC bilayer

•Isotropic membrane phases are observed in the presence of pitavastatin

Altered Membrane Mechanics Provides a Receptor-Independent Pathway for Serotonin Action

Serotonin, an important signaling molecule in humans, has an unexpectedly high lipid membrane affinity. The significance of this finding has evoked considerable speculation. Here we show that membrane binding by serotonin can directly modulate membrane properties and cellular function, providing an activity pathway completely independent of serotonin receptors. Atomic force microscopy shows that serotonin makes artificial lipid bilayers softer, and induces nucleation of liquid disordered domains inside the raft-like liquid-ordered domains. Solid-state NMR spectroscopy corroborates this data at the atomic level, revealing a homogeneous decrease in the order parameter of the lipid chains in the presence of serotonin. In the RN46A immortalized serotonergic neuronal cell line, extracellular serotonin enhances transferrin receptor endocytosis, even in the presence of broad-spectrum serotonin receptor and transporter inhibitors. Similarly, it increases the membrane binding and internalization of oligomeric peptides. Our results uncover a mode of serotonin-membrane interaction that can potentiate key cellular processes in a receptor-independent fashion.