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Ardila-Fierro KJ, Hernández JG. Intermediates in Mechanochemical Reactions. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2024; 63:e202317638. [PMID: 38179857 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202317638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2023] [Revised: 12/31/2023] [Accepted: 01/03/2024] [Indexed: 01/06/2024]
Abstract
Mechanochemical reactions offer methodological and environmental advantages for chemical synthesis, constantly attracting attention within the scientific community. Besides unmistakable sustainability advantages, the conditions under which mechanochemical reactions occur, namely solventless conditions, sometimes facilitate the isolation of otherwise labile or inaccessible products. Despite these advantages, limited knowledge exists regarding the mechanisms of these reactions and the types of intermediates involved. Nevertheless, in an expanding number of cases, ex situ and in situ monitoring techniques have allowed for the observation, characterization, and isolation of reaction intermediates in mechanochemical transformations. In this Minireview, we present a series of examples in which reactive intermediates have been detected in mechanochemical reactions spanning organic, organometallic, inorganic, and materials chemistry. Many of these intermediates were stabilized by non-covalent interactions, which played a pivotal role in guiding the chemical transformations. We believe that by uncovering and understanding such instances, the growing mechanochemistry community could find novel opportunities in catalysis and discover new mechanochemical reactions while achieving simplification in chemical reaction design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen J Ardila-Fierro
- Grupo Ciencia de los Materiales, Instituto de Química, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Antioquia, Calle 70 No 52-21, Medellín, Colombia
| | - José G Hernández
- Grupo Ciencia de los Materiales, Instituto de Química, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Antioquia, Calle 70 No 52-21, Medellín, Colombia
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Gómez S, Gómez S, Rojas-Valencia N, Hernández JG, Ardila-Fierro KJ, Gómez T, Cárdenas C, Hadad C, Cappelli C, Restrepo A. Interactions and reactivity in crystalline intermediates of mechanochemical cyclorhodation reactions. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2024; 26:2228-2241. [PMID: 38165158 DOI: 10.1039/d3cp04201d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
There is experimental evidence that solid mixtures of the rhodium dimer [Cp*RhCl2]2 and benzo[h] quinoline (BHQ) produce two different polymorphic molecular cocrystals called 4α and 4β under ball milling conditions. The addition of NaOAc to the mixture leads to the formation of the rhodacycle [Cp*Rh-(BHQ)Cl], where the central Rh atom retains its tetracoordinate character. Isolate 4β reacts with NaOAc leading to the same rhodacycle while isolate 4α does not under the same conditions. We show that the puzzling difference in reactivity between the two cocrystals can be traced back to fundamental aspects of the intermolecular interactions between the BHQ and [Cp*RhCl2]2 fragments in the crystalline environment. To support this view, we report a number of descriptors of the nature and strength of chemical bonds and intermolecular interactions in the extended solids and in a cluster model. We calculate formal quantum mechanical descriptors based on electronic structure, electron density, and binding and interaction energies including an energy decomposition analysis. Without exception, all descriptors point to 4β being a transient structure higher in energy than 4α with larger local and global electrophilic and nucleophilic powers, a more favorable spatial and energetic distribution of the frontier orbitals, and a more fragile crystal structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Gómez
- Scuola Normale Superiore, Classe di Scienze, Piazza dei Cavalieri 7, 56126, Pisa, Italy.
| | - Santiago Gómez
- Instituto de Química, Universidad de Antioquia UdeA, Calle 70 No. 52-21, Medellín, Colombia.
| | - Natalia Rojas-Valencia
- Instituto de Química, Universidad de Antioquia UdeA, Calle 70 No. 52-21, Medellín, Colombia.
| | - José G Hernández
- Instituto de Química, Universidad de Antioquia UdeA, Calle 70 No. 52-21, Medellín, Colombia.
| | - Karen J Ardila-Fierro
- Instituto de Química, Universidad de Antioquia UdeA, Calle 70 No. 52-21, Medellín, Colombia.
| | - Tatiana Gómez
- Theoretical and Computational Chemistry Center, Institute of Applied Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Engineering, Universidad Autonoma de Chile, Avenida Pedro de Valdivia 425, Santiago, Chile
| | - Carlos Cárdenas
- Departamento de Física, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Casilla 653, Santiago, Chile
- Centro para el desarrollo de las Nanociencias y Nanotecnología, CEDENNA, Av. Ecuador 3493, Santiago, Chile
| | - Cacier Hadad
- Instituto de Química, Universidad de Antioquia UdeA, Calle 70 No. 52-21, Medellín, Colombia.
| | - Chiara Cappelli
- Scuola Normale Superiore, Classe di Scienze, Piazza dei Cavalieri 7, 56126, Pisa, Italy.
| | - Albeiro Restrepo
- Instituto de Química, Universidad de Antioquia UdeA, Calle 70 No. 52-21, Medellín, Colombia.
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Marrett JM, Titi HM, Teoh Y, Friščić T. Supramolecular "baking powder": a hexameric halogen-bonded phosphonium salt cage encapsulates and functionalises small-molecule carbonyl compounds. Chem Sci 2023; 15:298-306. [PMID: 38131078 PMCID: PMC10732138 DOI: 10.1039/d2sc04615f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2022] [Accepted: 11/20/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023] Open
Abstract
We report a hexameric supramolecular cage assembled from the components of a Wittig-type phosphonium salt, held together by charge-assisted halogen bonds. The cage reliably encapsulates small polar molecules, including aldehydes and ketones, to provide host-guest systems where components are pre-formulated in a near-ideal stoichiometry for a mechanochemical base-activated Wittig olefination. These pre-formulated solids represent a proof-of-principle for a previously not reported supramolecular design of solid-state reactivity in which the host for molecular inclusion also acts as a complementary reagent for the subsequent chemical transformation of an array of guests. The host-guest solid-state complexes can act as supramolecular surrogates to their Wittig olefination vinylbromide products in a Sonogashira-type coupling that enables one-pot mechanochemical conversion of an aldehyde to an enediyne.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph M Marrett
- School of Chemistry, University of Birmingham Edgbaston Birmingham B15 2TT UK
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University 801 Sherbrooke St. W. Montreal H3A 0B8 Canada
| | - Hatem M Titi
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University 801 Sherbrooke St. W. Montreal H3A 0B8 Canada
| | - Yong Teoh
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University 801 Sherbrooke St. W. Montreal H3A 0B8 Canada
| | - Tomislav Friščić
- School of Chemistry, University of Birmingham Edgbaston Birmingham B15 2TT UK
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University 801 Sherbrooke St. W. Montreal H3A 0B8 Canada
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Stolar T, Alić J, Talajić G, Cindro N, Rubčić M, Molčanov K, Užarević K, Hernández JG. Supramolecular intermediates in thermo-mechanochemical direct amidations. Chem Commun (Camb) 2023; 59:13490-13493. [PMID: 37882212 DOI: 10.1039/d3cc04448c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2023]
Abstract
We present a solvent-free thermo-mechanochemical approach for the direct coupling of carboxylic acids and amines, which avoids activators and additives. Detailed analysis of the reactions by ex situ and in situ monitoring methods led to the observation, isolation, and characterisation of multicomponent crystalline intermediates that precede the formation of amides. We applied our methodology for the quantitative synthesis of the active pharmaceutical ingredient moclobemide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomislav Stolar
- Ruđer Bošković Institute, Bijenička c. 54, Zagreb 10000, Croatia.
| | - Jasna Alić
- Ruđer Bošković Institute, Bijenička c. 54, Zagreb 10000, Croatia.
| | - Gregor Talajić
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Zagreb, Horvatovac 102a, Zagreb 10000, Croatia
| | - Nikola Cindro
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Zagreb, Horvatovac 102a, Zagreb 10000, Croatia
| | - Mirta Rubčić
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Zagreb, Horvatovac 102a, Zagreb 10000, Croatia
| | | | | | - José G Hernández
- Grupo Ciencia de los Materiales, Instituto de Química, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín 050010, Colombia.
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