Posttranslational modifications of the cytoskeleton

Structural and functional mechanisms of actin isoforms

Actin is a highly conserved and fundamental protein in eukaryotes and participates in a broad spectrum of cellular functions. Cells maintain a conserved ratio of actin isoforms, with muscle and non-muscle actins representing the main actin isoforms in muscle and non-muscle cells, respectively. Actin isoforms have specific and redundant functional roles and display different biochemistries, cellular localization, and interactions with myosins and actin-binding proteins. Understanding the specific roles of actin isoforms from the structural and functional perspective is crucial for elucidating the intricacies of cytoskeletal dynamics and regulation and their implications in health and disease. Here, we review how the structure contributes to the functional mechanisms of actin isoforms with a special emphasis on the questions of how post-translational modifications and disease-linked mutations affect actin isoforms biochemistry, function, and interaction with actin-binding proteins and myosin motors.

Sonicated polyethylene terephthalate nano- and micro-plastic-induced inflammation, oxidative stress, and autophagy in vitro

The environmental presence of nano- and micro-plastic particles (NMPs) is suspected to have a negative impact on human health. Environmental NMPs are difficult to sample and use in life science research, while commercially available plastic particles are too morphologically uniform. Additionally, this NMPs exposure exhibited biological effects, including cell internalization, oxidative stress, inflammation, cellular adaptation, and genotoxicity. Therefore, developing new methods for producing heterogenous NMPs as observed in the environment is important as reference materials for research. Thus, we aimed to generate and characterize NMPs suspensions using a modified ultrasonic protocol and to investigate their biological effects after exposure to different human cell lines. To this end, we produced polyethylene terephthalate (PET) NMPs suspensions and characterized the particles by dynamic light scattering and scanning electron microscopy. Ultrasound treatment induced polymer degradation into smaller and heterogeneous PET NMPs shape fragments with similar surface chemistry before and after treatment. A polydisperse suspension of PET NMPs with 781 nm in average size and negative surface charge was generated. Then, the PET NMPs were cultured with two human cell lines, A549 (lung) and HaCaT (skin), addressing inhalation and topical exposure routes. Both cell lines interacted with and have taken up PET NMPs as quantified via cellular granularity assay. A549 but not HaCaT cell metabolism, viability, and cell death were affected by PET NMPs. In HaCaT keratinocytes, large PET NMPs provoked genotoxic effects. In both cell lines, PET NMPs exposure affected oxidative stress, cytokine release, and cell morphology, independently of concentration, which we could relate mechanistically to Nrf2 and autophagy activation. Collectively, we present a new PET NMP generation model suitable for studying the environmental and biological consequences of exposure to this polymer.

Type III intermediate filaments in redox interplay: key role of the conserved cysteine residue

Intermediate filaments (IFs) are cytoskeletal elements involved in mechanotransduction and in the integration of cellular responses. They are versatile structures and their assembly and organization are finely tuned by posttranslational modifications. Among them, type III IFs, mainly vimentin, have been identified as targets of multiple oxidative and electrophilic modifications. A characteristic of most type III IF proteins is the presence in their sequence of a single, conserved cysteine residue (C328 in vimentin), that is a hot spot for these modifications and appears to play a key role in the ability of the filament network to respond to oxidative stress. Current structural models and experimental evidence indicate that this cysteine residue may occupy a strategic position in the filaments in such a way that perturbations at this site, due to chemical modification or mutation, impact filament assembly or organization in a structure-dependent manner. Cysteine-dependent regulation of vimentin can be modulated by interaction with divalent cations, such as zinc, and by pH. Importantly, vimentin remodeling induced by C328 modification may affect its interaction with cellular organelles, as well as the cross-talk between cytoskeletal networks, as seems to be the case for the reorganization of actin filaments in response to oxidants and electrophiles. In summary, the evidence herein reviewed delineates a complex interplay in which type III IFs emerge both as targets and modulators of redox signaling.

Neurofilaments in health and Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease

Neurofilaments (NFs) are the most abundant component of mature neurons, that interconnect with actin and microtubules to form the cytoskeleton. Specifically expressed in the nervous system, NFs present the particularity within the Intermediate Filament family of being formed by four subunits, the neurofilament light (NF-L), medium (NF-M), heavy (NF-H) proteins and α-internexin or peripherin. Here, we review the current knowledge on NF proteins and neurofilaments, from their domain structures and their model of assembly to the dynamics of their transport and degradation along the axon. The formation of the filament and its behaviour are regulated by various determinants, including post-transcriptional (miRNA and RBP proteins) and post-translational (phosphorylation and ubiquitination) modifiers. Altogether, the complex set of modifications enable the neuron to establish a stable but elastic NF array constituting the structural scaffold of the axon, while permitting the local expression of NF proteins and providing the dynamics necessary to fulfil local demands and respond to stimuli and injury. Thus, in addition to their roles in mechano-resistance, radial axonal outgrowth and nerve conduction, NFs control microtubule dynamics, organelle distribution and neurotransmission at the synapse. We discuss how the studies of neurodegenerative diseases with NF aggregation shed light on the biology of NFs. In particular, the NEFL and NEFH genes are mutated in Charcot-Marie-Tooth (CMT) disease, the most common inherited neurological disorder of the peripheral nervous system. The clinical features of the CMT forms (axonal CMT2E, CMT2CC; demyelinating CMT1F; intermediate I-CMT) with symptoms affecting the central nervous system (CNS) will allow us to further investigate the physiological roles of NFs in the brain. Thus, NF-CMT mouse models exhibit various degrees of sensory-motor deficits associated with CNS symptoms. Cellular systems brought findings regarding the dominant effect of NF-L mutants on NF aggregation and transport, although these have been recently challenged. Neurofilament detection without NF-L in recessive CMT is puzzling, calling for a re-examination of the current model in which NF-L is indispensable for NF assembly. Overall, we discuss how the fundamental and translational fields are feeding each-other to increase but also challenge our knowledge of NF biology, and to develop therapeutic avenues for CMT and neurodegenerative diseases with NF aggregation.

Microgravity triggers ferroptosis and accelerates senescence in the MG-63 cell model of osteoblastic cells

In space, cells sustain strong modifications of their mechanical environment. Mechanosensitive molecules at the cell membrane regulate mechanotransduction pathways that induce adaptive responses through the regulation of gene expression, post-translational modifications, protein interactions or intracellular trafficking, among others. In the current study, human osteoblastic cells were cultured on the ISS in microgravity and at 1 g in a centrifuge, as onboard controls. RNAseq analyses showed that microgravity inhibits cell proliferation and DNA repair, stimulates inflammatory pathways and induces ferroptosis and senescence, two pathways related to ageing. Morphological hallmarks of senescence, such as reduced nuclear size and changes in chromatin architecture, proliferation marker distribution, tubulin acetylation and lysosomal transport were identified by immunofluorescence microscopy, reinforcing the hypothesis of induction of cell senescence in microgravity during space flight. These processes could be attributed, at least in part, to the regulation of YAP1 and its downstream effectors NUPR1 and CKAP2L.

Independent Membrane Binding Properties of the Caspase Generated Fragments of the Beaded Filament Structural Protein 1 (BFSP1) Involves an Amphipathic Helix

BACKGROUND

BFSP1 (beaded filament structural protein 1) is a plasma membrane, Aquaporin 0 (AQP0/MIP)-associated intermediate filament protein expressed in the eye lens. BFSP1 is myristoylated, a post-translation modification that requires caspase cleavage at D433. Bioinformatic analyses suggested that the sequences 434-452 were α-helical and amphipathic.

METHODS AND RESULTS

By CD spectroscopy, we show that the addition of trifluoroethanol induced a switch from an intrinsically disordered to a more α-helical conformation for the residues 434-467. Recombinantly produced BFSP1 fragments containing this amphipathic helix bind to lens lipid bilayers as determined by surface plasmon resonance (SPR). Lastly, we demonstrate by transient transfection of non-lens MCF7 cells that these same BFSP1 C-terminal sequences localise to plasma membranes and to cytoplasmic vesicles. These can be co-labelled with the vital dye, lysotracker, but other cell compartments, such as the nuclear and mitochondrial membranes, were negative. The N-terminal myristoylation of the amphipathic helix appeared not to change either the lipid affinity or membrane localisation of the BFSP1 polypeptides or fragments we assessed by SPR and transient transfection, but it did appear to enhance its helical content.

CONCLUSIONS

These data support the conclusion that C-terminal sequences of human BFSP1 distal to the caspase site at G433 have independent membrane binding properties via an adjacent amphipathic helix.

Glutamylation is a negative regulator of microtubule growth

Microtubules are noncovalent polymers built from αβ-tubulin dimers. The disordered C-terminal tubulin tails are functionalized with multiple glutamate chains of variable lengths added and removed by tubulin tyrosine ligases (TTLLs) and carboxypeptidases (CCPs). Glutamylation is abundant on stable microtubule arrays such as in axonemes and axons, and its dysregulation leads to human pathologies. Despite this, the effects of glutamylation on intrinsic microtubule dynamics are unclear. Here we generate tubulin with short and long glutamate chains and show that glutamylation slows the rate of microtubule growth and increases catastrophes as a function of glutamylation levels. This implies that the higher stability of glutamylated microtubules in cells is due to effectors. Interestingly, EB1 is minimally affected by glutamylation and thus can report on the growth rates of both unmodified and glutamylated microtubules. Finally, we show that glutamate removal by CCP1 and 5 is synergistic and occurs preferentially on soluble tubulin, unlike TTLL enzymes that prefer microtubules. This substrate preference establishes an asymmetry whereby once the microtubule depolymerizes, the released tubulin is reset to a less-modified state, while polymerized tubulin accumulates the glutamylation mark. Our work shows that a modification on the disordered tubulin tails can directly affect microtubule dynamics and furthers our understanding of the mechanistic underpinnings of the tubulin code.

Measurement of Microtubule Stability in Mammalian Cells

The microtubule cytoskeleton is essential for various biological processes such as the intracellular distribution of molecules and organelles, cell morphogenesis, chromosome segregation, and specification of the location of contractile ring formation. Distinct cell types contain microtubules with different extents of stability. For example, microtubules in neurons are highly stabilized to support organelle (or vesicular) transport over large distances, and microtubules in motile cells are more dynamic. In some cases, such as the mitotic spindle, both dynamic and stable microtubules coexist. Alteration of microtubule stability is connected to disease states, making understanding microtubule stability an important area of research. Methods to measure microtubule stability in mammalian cells are described here. Together, these approaches allow microtubule stability to be measured qualitatively or semiquantitatively following staining for post-translational modifications of tubulin or treating cells with microtubule destabilizing agents such as nocodazole. Microtubule stability can also be measured quantitatively by performing fluorescence recovery after photobleaching or fluorescence photoactivation of tubulin in live cells. These methods should be helpful for those seeking to understand microtubule dynamics and stabilization. © 2023 Wiley Periodicals LLC. Basic Protocol 1: Fixing and staining cells for tubulin post-translational modifications Basic Protocol 2: Evaluating microtubule stability following treatment with nocodazole in live or fixed cells Basic Protocol 3: Measurement of microtubule dynamic turnover by quantification of fluorescence recovery after photobleaching Basic Protocol 4: Measurement of microtubule dynamic turnover by quantification of dissipation of fluorescence after photoactivation.

α-Tubulin acetylation at lysine 40 regulates dendritic arborization and larval locomotion by promoting microtubule stability in Drosophila

Posttranslational modification of tubulin increases the dynamic complexity and functional diversity of microtubules. Acetylation of α-tubulin at Lys-40 is a highly conserved posttranslational modification that has been shown to improve the flexibility and resilience of microtubules. Here we studied the in vivo functions of α-tubulin acetylation by knocking-out Atat, the Drosophila α-tubulin acetyltransferase, and by mutating Lys-40 to Arg in α1-tubulin. We found a reduction in the dendritic arborization of larval class I dendritic arborization (da) neurons in both mutants. The dendritic developmental defects in atat mutants could be reversed by enhancing the stability of microtubules either through knocking down the microtubule severing protein Katanin 60 or through overexpressing tubulin-specific chaperone E, suggesting that α-tubulin deacetylation impairsed dendritic morphology by decreasing the stability of microtubules. Using time-lapse recordings, we found that atat and α1-tubulinK40R mutations dramatically increased the number of dendritic protrusions that were likely to be immature dendritic precursors. Finally, we showed that both Atat and α-tubulin acetylation were required in class I da neurons to control larval locomotion. These findings add novel insight into the current knowledge of the role of α-tubulin acetylation in regulating neuronal development and functions.

Assaying Intracellular Arginylation Activity Using a Fluorescent Reporter

In this chapter, we present a simplified version of the method described in Chapter 9 of this book, adapted for fast and convenient evaluation of intracellular arginylation activity in live cells. As in the previous chapter, this method utilizes a GFP-tagged N-terminal β-actin peptide transfected into cells as a reporter construct. Arginylation activity can then be evaluated by harvesting the reporter-expressing cells and analyzing them directly by Western blot using an arginylated β-actin antibody and a GFP antibody as an internal reference. While absolute arginylation activity cannot be measured in this assay, different types of reporter-expressing cells can be directly compared, and the effect of genetic background or treatment can be evaluated. For its simplicity and broad biological application, we felt this method merited presentation here as a separate protocol.

Role of the Intermediate Filament Protein Peripherin in Health and Disease

Intermediate filaments are the most heterogeneous class among cytoskeletal elements. While some of them have been well-characterized, little is known about peripherin. Peripherin is a class III intermediate filament protein with a specific expression in the peripheral nervous system. Epigenetic modifications are involved in this cell-type-specific expression. Peripherin has important roles in neurite outgrowth and stability, axonal transport, and axonal myelination. Moreover, peripherin interacts with proteins involved in vesicular trafficking, signal transduction, DNA/RNA processing, protein folding, and mitochondrial metabolism, suggesting a role in all these processes. This review collects information regarding peripherin gene regulation, post-translational modifications, and functions and its involvement in the onset of a number of diseases.

Combinatorial and antagonistic effects of tubulin glutamylation and glycylation on katanin microtubule severing

Microtubules have spatiotemporally complex posttranslational modification patterns. How cells interpret this tubulin modification code is largely unknown. We show that C. elegans katanin, a microtubule severing AAA ATPase mutated in microcephaly and critical for cell division, axonal elongation, and cilia biogenesis, responds precisely, differentially, and combinatorially to three chemically distinct tubulin modifications-glycylation, glutamylation, and tyrosination-but is insensitive to acetylation. Glutamylation and glycylation are antagonistic rheostats with glycylation protecting microtubules from severing. Katanin exhibits graded and divergent responses to glutamylation on the α- and β-tubulin tails, and these act combinatorially. The katanin hexamer central pore constrains the polyglutamate chain patterns on β-tails recognized productively. Elements distal to the katanin AAA core sense α-tubulin tyrosination, and detyrosination downregulates severing. The multivalent microtubule recognition that enables katanin to read multiple tubulin modification inputs explains in vivo observations and illustrates how effectors can integrate tubulin code signals to produce diverse functional outcomes.

The 2022 Lady Estelle Wolfson lectureship on neurofilaments

Neurofilament proteins (Nf) have been validated and established as a reliable body fluid biomarker for neurodegenerative pathology. This review covers seven Nf isoforms, Nf light (NfL), two splicing variants of Nf medium (NfM), two splicing variants of Nf heavy (NfH), α -internexin (INA) and peripherin (PRPH). The genetic and epigenetic aspects of Nf are discussed as relevant for neurodegenerative diseases and oncology. The comprehensive list of mutations for all Nf isoforms covers Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis, Charcot-Marie Tooth disease, Spinal muscular atrophy, Parkinson Disease and Lewy Body Dementia. Next, emphasis is given to the expanding field of post-translational modifications (PTM) of the Nf amino acid residues. Protein structural aspects are reviewed alongside PTMs causing neurodegenerative pathology and human autoimmunity. Molecular visualisations of NF PTMs, assembly and stoichiometry make use of Alphafold2 modelling. The implications for Nf function on the cellular level and axonal transport are discussed. Neurofilament aggregate formation and proteolytic breakdown are reviewed as relevant for biomarker tests and disease. Likewise, Nf stoichiometry is reviewed with regard to in vitro experiments and as a compensatory mechanism in neurodegeneration. The review of Nf across a spectrum of 87 diseases from all parts of medicine is followed by a critical appraisal of 33 meta-analyses on Nf body fluid levels. The review concludes with considerations for clinical trial design and an outlook for future research.

Differential N-terminal processing of beta and gamma actin

Cytoplasmic beta- and gamma-actin are ubiquitously expressed in every eukaryotic cell. They are encoded by different genes, but their amino acid sequences differ only by four conservative substitutions at the N-termini, making it difficult to dissect their individual regulation. Here, we analyzed actin from cultured cells and tissues by mass spectrometry and found that beta, unlike gamma actin, undergoes sequential removal of N-terminal Asp residues, leading to truncated actin species found in both F- and G-actin preparations. This processing affects up to ∼3% of beta actin in different cell types. We used CRISPR/Cas-9 in cultured cells to delete two candidate enzymes capable of mediating this type of processing. This deletion abolishes most of the beta actin N-terminal processing and results in changes in F-actin levels, cell spreading, filopodia formation, and cell migration. Our results demonstrate previously unknown isoform-specific actin regulation that can potentially affect actin functions in cells.

Organophosphorus Pesticides Promote Protein Cross-Linking

Exposure to organophosphorus pesticides (OP) can have chronic adverse effects that are independent of inhibition of acetylcholinesterase, the classic target for acute OP toxicity. In pure proteins, the organophosphorus pesticide chlorpyrifos oxon induces a cross-link between lysine and glutamate (or aspartate) with loss of water. Tubulin is particularly sensitive to OP-induced cross-linking. Our goal was to explore OP-induced cross-linking in a complex protein sample, MAP-rich tubulin from Sus scrofa and to test 8 OP for their capacity to promote isopeptide cross-linking. We treated 100 μg of MAP-rich tubulin with 100 μM chlorpyrifos, chlorpyrifos oxon, methamidophos, paraoxon, diazinon, diazoxon, monocrotophos, or dichlorvos. Each sample was separated using sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and stained with Coomassie blue. Five gel slices (at about 30, 50, 150, and 300 kDa, and the top of the separating gel) were removed from the lanes for each of the eight OP samples and from untreated control lanes. These gel slices were subjected to in-gel trypsin digestion. MSMS fragmentation spectra of the tryptic peptides were examined for isopeptide cross-links. Sixteen spectra yielded convincing evidence for isopeptide cross-linked peptides. Ten were from the chlorpyrifos oxon reaction, 1 from dichlorvos, 1 from paraoxon, 1 from diazinon, and 3 from diazoxon. It was concluded that catalysis of protein cross-linking is a general property of organophosphorus pesticides and pesticide metabolites. Data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD034529.

Intermediate filaments: Integration of cell mechanical properties during migration

Cell migration is a vital and dynamic process required for the development of multicellular organisms and for immune system responses, tissue renewal and wound healing in adults. It also contributes to a variety of human diseases such as cancers, autoimmune diseases, chronic inflammation and fibrosis. The cytoskeleton, which includes actin microfilaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments (IFs), is responsible for the maintenance of animal cell shape and structural integrity. Each cytoskeletal network contributes its unique properties to dynamic cell behaviour, such as cell polarization, membrane protrusion, cell adhesion and contraction. Hence, cell migration requires the dynamic orchestration of all cytoskeleton components. Among these, IFs have emerged as a molecular scaffold with unique mechanical features and a key player in the cell resilience to mechanical stresses during migration through complex 3D environment. Moreover, accumulating evidence illustrates the participation of IFs in signalling cascades and cytoskeletal crosstalk. Teaming up with actin and microtubules, IFs contribute to the active generation of forces required for cell adhesion and mesenchymal migration and invasion. Here we summarize and discuss how IFs integrate mechanical properties and signalling functions to control cell migration in a wide spectrum of physiological and pathological situations.

Phosphinic acid-based inhibitors of tubulin polyglycylation

Tubulin polyglycylation is a posttranslational modification that occurs primarily on the axonemes of flagella and cilia and has been shown to be essential for proper sperm motility. Inhibitors of both the initiase and elongase ligases (TTLL8 and TTLL10) are shown to inhibit tubulin glycylation in the low micromolar range.

Intermediate Filaments in Cellular Mechanoresponsiveness: Mediating Cytoskeletal Crosstalk From Membrane to Nucleus and Back

The mammalian cytoskeleton forms a mechanical continuum that spans across the cell, connecting the cell surface to the nucleus via transmembrane protein complexes in the plasma and nuclear membranes. It transmits extracellular forces to the cell interior, providing mechanical cues that influence cellular decisions, but also actively generates intracellular forces, enabling the cell to probe and remodel its tissue microenvironment. Cells adapt their gene expression profile and morphology to external cues provided by the matrix and adjacent cells as well as to cell-intrinsic changes in cytoplasmic and nuclear volume. The cytoskeleton is a complex filamentous network of three interpenetrating structural proteins: actin, microtubules, and intermediate filaments. Traditionally the actin cytoskeleton is considered the main contributor to mechanosensitivity. This view is now shifting owing to the mounting evidence that the three cytoskeletal filaments have interdependent functions due to cytoskeletal crosstalk, with intermediate filaments taking a central role. In this Mini Review we discuss how cytoskeletal crosstalk confers mechanosensitivity to cells and tissues, with a particular focus on the role of intermediate filaments. We propose a view of the cytoskeleton as a composite structure, in which cytoskeletal crosstalk regulates the local stability and organization of all three filament families at the sub-cellular scale, cytoskeletal mechanics at the cellular scale, and cell adaptation to external cues at the tissue scale.

Cytoskeletal proteins: Lessons learned from bacteria

Cytoskeletal proteins are classified as a group that is defined functionally, whose members are capable of polymerizing into higher order structures, either dynamically or statically, to perform structural roles during a variety of cellular processes. In eukaryotes, the most well-studied cytoskeletal proteins are actin, tubulin, and intermediate filaments, and are essential for cell shape and movement, chromosome segregation, and intracellular cargo transport. Prokaryotes often harbor homologs of these proteins, but in bacterial cells, these homologs are usually not employed in roles that can be strictly defined as "cytoskeletal". However, several bacteria encode other proteins capable of polymerizing which, although they do not appear to have a eukaryotic counterpart, nonetheless appear to perform a more traditional "cytoskeletal" function. In this review, we discuss recent reports that cover the structure and functions of prokaryotic proteins that are broadly termed as cytoskeletal, either by sequence homology or by function, to highlight how the enzymatic properties of traditionally studied cytoskeletal proteins may be used for other types of cellular functions; and to demonstrate how truly "cytoskeletal" functions may be performed by uniquely bacterial proteins that do not display homology to eukaryotic proteins.

Susceptibility of cytoskeletal-associated proteins for tumor progression

The traditional functions of cytoskeletal-associated proteins (CAPs) in line with polymerization and stabilization of the cytoskeleton have evolved and are currently underrated in oncology. Although therapeutic drugs have been developed to target the cytoskeletal components directly in cancer treatment, several recently established therapeutic agents designed for new targets block the proliferation of cancer cells and suppress resistance to existing target agents. It would seem like these targets only work toward inhibiting the polymerization of cytoskeletal components or hindering mitotic spindle formation in cancer cells, but a large body of literature points to CAPs and their culpability in cell signaling, molecular conformation, organelle trafficking, cellular metabolism, and genomic modifications. Here, we review those underappreciated functions of CAPs, and we delineate the implications of cellular signaling instigated by evasive properties induced by aberrant expression of CAPs in response to stress or failure to exert normal functions. We present an analogy establishing CAPs as vulnerable targets for cancer systems and credible oncotargets. This review establishes a paradigm in which the cancer machinery may commandeer the conventional functions of CAPs for survival, drug resistance, and energy generation; an interesting feature overdue for attention.

The Structure, Activity, and Function of the SETD3 Protein Histidine Methyltransferase

SETD3 has been recently identified as a long sought, actin specific histidine methyltransferase that catalyzes the Nτ-methylation reaction of histidine 73 (H73) residue in human actin or its equivalent in other metazoans. Its homologs are widespread among multicellular eukaryotes and expressed in most mammalian tissues. SETD3 consists of a catalytic SET domain responsible for transferring the methyl group from S-adenosyl-L-methionine (AdoMet) to a protein substrate and a RuBisCO LSMT domain that recognizes and binds the methyl-accepting protein(s). The enzyme was initially identified as a methyltransferase that catalyzes the modification of histone H3 at K4 and K36 residues, but later studies revealed that the only bona fide substrate of SETD3 is H73, in the actin protein. The methylation of actin at H73 contributes to maintaining cytoskeleton integrity, which remains the only well characterized biological effect of SETD3. However, the discovery of numerous novel methyltransferase interactors suggests that SETD3 may regulate various biological processes, including cell cycle and apoptosis, carcinogenesis, response to hypoxic conditions, and enterovirus pathogenesis. This review summarizes the current advances in research on the SETD3 protein, its biological importance, and role in various diseases.