Synthesis, receptor binding, and CNS pharmacological studies of new thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) analogues

Design, synthesis, and applications of ring-functionalized histidines in peptide-based medicinal chemistry and drug discovery

Modified and synthetic α-amino acids are known to show diverse applications. Histidine, which possesses numerous applications when subjected to synthetic modifications, is one such amino acid. The utility of modified histidines varies widely from remarkable biological activities to catalysis, and from nanotechnology to polymer chemistry. This renders histidine residue an important place in scientific research. Histidine is a well-studied scaffold and constitutes the active site of various enzymes catalyzing important reactions in the biological systems. A rational modification in histidine structure with a distinctly developed protocol extensively changes its physical and chemical properties. The utilization of modified histidines in search of potent, target selective and proteostable scaffolds is vital in the development of bioactive peptides with enhanced drug-likeliness. This review is a compilation and analysis of reported side-chain ring modifications at histidine followed by applications of ring-modified histidines in the synthesis of various categories of bioactive peptides and peptidomimetics.

Taltirelin alleviates fatigue-like behavior in mouse models of cancer-related fatigue

Fatigue affects most cancer patients and has numerous potential causes, including cancer itself and cancer treatment. Cancer-related fatigue (CRF) is not relieved by rest, can decrease quality of life, and has no FDA-approved therapy. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) has been proposed as a potential novel treatment for CRF, but its efficacy against CRF remains largely untested. Thus, we tested the TRH analog, taltirelin (TAL), in mouse models of CRF. To model fatigue, we used a mouse model of chemotherapy, a mouse model of radiation therapy, and mice bearing colon 26 carcinoma tumors. We used the treadmill fatigue test to assess fatigue-like behavior after treatment with TAL. Additionally, we used wild-type and TRH receptor knockout mice to determine which TRH receptor was necessary for the actions of TAL. Tumor-bearing mice displayed muscle wasting and all models caused fatigue-like behavior, with mice running a shorter distance in the treadmill fatigue test than controls. TAL reversed fatigue-like behavior in all three models and the mouse TRH₁ receptor was necessary for the effects of TAL. These data suggest that TAL may be useful in alleviating fatigue in all cancer patients and provide further support for evaluating TAL as a potential therapy for CRF in humans.

Effect of L-pGlu-(1-benzyl)-l-His-l-Pro-NH2 against in-vitro and in-vivo models of cerebral ischemia and associated neurological disorders

Central nervous system plays a vital role in regulation of most of biological functions which are abnormally affected in various disorders including cerebral ischemia, Alzheimer's and Parkinson's (AD and PD) worldwide. Cerebral stroke is an extremely fatal and one of the least comprehensible neurological disorders due to limited availability of prospective clinical approaches and therapeutics. Since, some endogenous peptides like thyrotropin-releasing hormone have shown substantial neuroprotective potential, hence present study evaluates the newer thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) analogue L-pGlu-(1-benzyl)-l-His-l-Pro-NH₂ for its neuroprotective effects against oxygen glucose deprivation (OGD), glutamate and H₂O₂ induced injury in pheochromocytoma cell lines (PC-12 cells) and in-vivo ischemic injury in mice. Additionally, the treatment was further analyzed with respect to models of AD and PD in mice. Cerebral ischemia was induced by clamping both bilateral common carotid arteries for ten minutes. Treatment was administered to the mice five minute after restoration of blood supply to brain. Consequential changes in neurobehavioural, biochemical and histological parameters were assessed after a week. L-pGlu-(1-benzyl)-l-His-l-Pro-NH₂ showed significant reduction in glutamate, H₂O₂ and OGD -induced cell death in concentration and time dependent manner. Moreover, L-pGlu-(1-benzyl)-l-His-l-Pro-NH₂ resulted in a substantial reduction in CA1 (Cornus Ammonis 1) hippocampal neuronal cell death, inflammatory cytokines, TNF-α, IL-6 and oxidative stress in hippocampus. In addition, L-pGlu-(1-benzyl)-l-His-l-Pro-NH₂ was found to be protective in two acute models of AD and PD as well these findings demonstrate the neuroprotective potential of L-pGlu-(1-benzyl)-l-His-l-Pro-NH₂ in cerebral ischemia and other diseases, which may be mediated through reduction of excitotoxicity, oxidative stress and inflammation.

Synthesis and biology of ring-modified l-Histidine containing thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) analogues

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) analogues bearing halogen groups (Cl, Br and I) at the C-2 and/or C-5 position, and the alkyl group (CH3, C2H5, C3H7, CH2C6H5) at the N-1 position of the imidazole ring of the central histidine residue were synthesized and evaluated for the receptor binding, calcium mobilization (FLIPR), and IP-1 assay at the HEK mTRHR1 and HEK mTRHR2 expressing cell lines. The most promising analogue 7k showed 925-fold selectivity for HEK mTRH-R2 receptor subtype in the IP-1 assay, 272-fold selectivity for HEK mTRH-R2 receptor subtype in the FLIPR assay, and 21-fold receptor binding specificity at HEK TRH-R2 receptor subtype. The peptide 7k was evaluated in vitro in a brain membrane competitive binding assay, and for stability analysis in the presence of TRH-DE, in vivo. The analogue 7k showed decrease in the sleeping time by more than 76% in a pentobarbital-induced sleeping assay, and showed comparatively less elevation in the TSH level in the blood, in vivo. The computational homology modeling of TRH-R1 and TRH-R2 and docking study with the most potent peptide 7k provide impetus to design CNS specific TRH analogues.

Discovery of a low affinity thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)-like peptide that exhibits potent inhibition of scopolamine-induced memory impairment in mice

TRH-like peptides were synthesized in which the critical N-terminus residue L-pGlu was replaced with various heteroaromatic rings, and the central residue histidine with 1-alkyl-L-histidines. All synthesized TRH-like peptides were evaluated in vitro as agonists in HEK mTRH-R1 and HEK mTRH-R2 cell lines, an expressing receptor binding assay (IC50), and cell signaling assay (EC50). The analeptic potential of the synthesized peptides was evaluated in vivo by using the antagonism of a pentobarbital-induced sleeping time. The peptides 6a, 6c and 6e were found to activate TRH-R2 with potencies (EC50) of 0.002 μM, 0.28 μM and 0.049 μM, respectively. In contrast, for signaling activation of TRH-R1, the same peptides required higher concentration of 0.414 μM, 50 μM and 19.1 μM, respectively in the FLIPR assay. The results showed that these peptides were 207, 178 and 389-fold selective towards TRH-R2 receptor subtype. In the antagonism of a pentobarbital-induced sleeping time assay, peptide 6c showed a 58.5% reduction in sleeping time. The peptide 6c exhibited high stability in rat blood plasma, a superior effect on the scopolamine-induced cognition impairment mice model, safe effects on the cardiovascular system, and general behavior using a functional observation battery (FOB).

Unmet needs of patients with narcolepsy: perspectives on emerging treatment options

The treatment options currently available for narcolepsy are often unsatisfactory due to suboptimal efficacy, troublesome side effects, development of drug tolerance, and inconvenience. Our understanding of the neurobiology of narcolepsy has greatly improved over the last decade. This knowledge has not yet translated into additional therapeutic options for patients, but progress is being made. Some compounds, such as histaminergic H3 receptor antagonists, may prove useful in symptom control of narcolepsy. The prospect of finding a cure still seems distant, but hypocretin replacement therapy offers some promise. In this narrative review, we describe these developments and others which may yield more effective narcolepsy treatments in the future.

Hypothalamic neurohormones and immune responses

The aim of this review is to provide a comprehensive examination of the current literature describing the neural-immune interactions, with emphasis on the most recent findings of the effects of neurohormones on immune system. Particularly, the role of hypothalamic hormones such as Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). In the past few years, interest has been raised in extrapituitary actions of these neurohormones due to their receptors have been found in many non-pituitary tissues. Also, the receptors are present in immune cells, suggesting an autocrine or paracrine role within the immune system. In general, these neurohormones have been reported to exert immunomodulatory effects on cell proliferation, immune mediators release and cell function. The implications of these findings in understanding the network of hypothalamic neuropeptides and immune system are discussed.

Novel thyrotropin-releasing hormone analogs: a patent review

INTRODUCTION

The potential therapeutic applications of thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) have attracted attention, based on its broad-spectrum neuropharmacological action rather than its endocrine properties. These central nervous system (CNS)-mediated effects provide the rationale for use of TRH and its analogs in the treatment of brain and spinal injury, and CNS disorders like schizophrenia, Alzheimer's disease, epilepsy, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, depression, shock and ischemia.

AREAS COVERED

This review summarizes the patent literature and advances in the discovery and development of novel TRH analogs over the past 20 years. It provides a comprehensive overview of the development of new TRH analogs, giving emphasis to their pharmaceutical profile.

EXPERT OPINION

The use of TRH in the treatment of various CNS disorders has been proven clinically. However, TRH itself is a poor drug candidate due to its short plasma half-life (5 min), poor biopharmaceutical properties (low intestinal and CNS permeability) and endocrine side effect. Nevertheless, researchers have come up with metabolically stable, more potent and selective TRH analogs and prodrugs. Taltirelin, one of the TRH analogs, has been approved under the trade name of Ceredist(®) in Japan for the treatment of spinocerebellar degeneration. Several other TRH analogs are in various stages of preclinical or clinical development.