Reproducibility of cytologic atypia in repeat nipple duct lavage

Characteristics of Breast Ducts in Normal-Risk and High-risk Women and Their Relationship to Ductal Cytologic Atypia

Breast ductal cytologic atypia is an important risk factor for sporadic breast cancer. Characterization of the associated normal breast tissue is needed to develop additional methods of risk assessment and new targets for breast cancer prevention. We conducted a prospective clinical trial evaluating women at normal-risk or at high-risk for sporadic breast cancer. Breast ductal cells were collected and studied cytologically and by gene expression profiling, and breast ductal architectural changes were studied by breast ductal endoscopy (BDE) and breast MRI. One hundred and forty subjects were studied, 70 at high risk (RR, 2.0-4.6) and 70 at normal risk. Cytologic atypia was present in 22.9% of high-risk and 25.7% of normal-risk subjects. Ductal endoscopy was performed in 89 subjects and revealed benign intraductal abnormalities, primarily intraductal fibrous webbing suggesting chronic inflammation, in 40.4% of high-risk and 5.4% of normal-risk subjects, respectively (P 2 = 0.0002). Two high-risk subjects with atypia and no normal-risk subjects with atypia developed invasive breast cancer. Gene expression profiling of ductal cells showed comparable gene expression profiles without enriched expression of previously defined oncogenic signatures in subjects with cellular atypia compared with those without atypia, and in high-risk subjects compared with normal-risk subjects (FDR > 0.5). Cytologic ductal atypia in normal-risk subjects does not appear to be of clinical significance. Atypia in women at high risk may be associated with benign and malignant breast ductal abnormalities; these characteristics of high-risk ductal cells may not be reflected in gene expression profiles.

Diagnostic Accuracy of Nipple Aspirate Fluid Cytology in Asymptomatic Patients: A Meta-analysis and Systematic Review of the Literature

Purpose

To calculate the diagnostic accuracy of nipple aspirate fluid (NAF) cytology.

Background

Evaluation of NAF cytology in asymptomatic patients conceptually offers a non-invasive method for either screening for breast cancer or else predicting or stratifying future cancer risk.

Methods

Studies were identified by performing electronic searches up to August 2019. A meta-analysis was conducted to attain an overall pooled sensitivity and specificity of NAF for breast cancer detection.

Results

A search through 938 studies yielded a total of 19 studies. Overall, 9308 patients were examined, with cytology results from 10,147 breasts [age (years), mean ± SD = 49.73 ± 4.09 years]. Diagnostic accuracy meta-analysis of NAF revealed a pooled specificity of 0.97 (95% CI 0.97–0.98), and sensitivity of 0.64 (95% CI 0.62–0.66).

Conclusions

The diagnostic accuracy of nipple smear cytology is limited by poor sensitivity. If nipple fluid assessment is to be used for diagnosis, then emerging technologies for fluid biomarker analysis must supersede the current diagnostic accuracy of NAF cytology.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1245/s10434-020-09313-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

INTEND II randomized clinical trial of intraoperative duct endoscopy in pathological nipple discharge

BACKGROUND

The majority of lesions resulting in pathological nipple discharge are benign. Conventional surgery is undirected and targeting the causative lesion by duct endoscopy may enable more accurate surgery with fewer complications.

METHODS

Patients requiring microdochectomy and/or major duct excision were randomized to duct endoscopy or no duct endoscopy before surgery. Primary endpoints were successful visualization of the pathological lesion in patients randomized to duct endoscopy, and a comparison of the causative pathology between the two groups. The secondary endpoint was to compare the specimen size between groups.

RESULTS

A total of 68 breasts were studied in 66 patients; there were 31 breasts in the duct endoscopy group and 37 in the no-endoscopy group. Median age was 49 (range 19-81) years. Follow-up was 5·4 (i.q.r. 3·3-8·9) years in the duct endoscopy group and 5·7 (3·1-9·0) years in no-endoscopy group. Duct endoscopy had a sensitivity of 80 (95 per cent c.i. 52 to 96) per cent, specificity of 71 (44 to 90) per cent, positive predictive value of 71 (44 to 90) per cent and negative predictive value of 80 (52 to 96) per cent in identifying any lesion. There was no difference in causative pathology between the groups. Median volume of the surgical resection specimen did not differ between groups.

CONCLUSION

Diagnostic duct endoscopy is useful for identifying causative lesions of nipple discharge. Duct endoscopy did not influence the pathological yield of benign or malignant diagnoses nor surgical resection volumes. Registered as INTEND II in CancerHelp UK clinical trials database (https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/find-a-clinical-trial/a-study-looking-at-changes-inside-the-breast-ducts-of-women-who-have-nipple-discharge).

Comparison of Random Periareolar Fine Needle Aspirate versus Ductal Lavage for Risk Assessment and Prevention of Breast Cancer

Random periareolar fine needle aspiration (RPFNA) and ductal lavage (DL) are research techniques developed to (1) assess short-term breast cancer risk in asymptomatic women who are at increased risk for breast cancer and (2) track cytological response to risk reduction strategies. RPFNA and DL provide minimally invasive methods to repeatedly sample epithelial cells and research tools to investigate the biological origins of breast cancer in high-risk women. This review gives an overview of the strengths and limitations of both RPFNA and DL for risk assessment and breast cancer prevention in asymptomatic high-risk women.

Correlation of ductal lavage cytology with ductoscopy-directed duct excision histology in women at high risk for developing breast cancer: a prospective, single-institution trial

OBJECTIVES

The study was designed to determine which histological lesions produce cellular atypia in lavage specimens and whether ductoscopy adds useful information for the evaluation of high-risk patients with atypical lavage cytology.

METHODS

We prospectively recruited women ≥35 years at high risk for developing breast cancer. All underwent ductal lavage. Women found to have atypia underwent ductoscopy-directed duct excision (group 1). Women without atypia were observed (group 2). Data included patient demographics, risk assessment, cytologic and histologic findings, and outcomes. Descriptive statistics were utilized for data summary and were compared using Fisher's exact test.

RESULTS

We enrolled 102 women; 93 (91%) were Caucasian. Their median age was 49 (range 34-73) years with a median follow-up of 80 (range 5-90) months. Overall, 27 (26%) had atypical lavage cytology (group 1), and 75 (74%) had benign cytology (group 2). Subsequent duct excision in group 1 revealed benign histology in 11 (44%), papillomas in 9 (36%), atypical hyperplasia (AH) in 4 (16%), and ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) in 1 (4%). At follow-up, three patients developed breast cancer, including one group 1 patient and two group 2 patients. There were no differences between groups 1 and 2 according to patient demographics, Gail scores, or risk for subsequent breast cancer (P > 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Although 20% of high-risk women with ductal lavage atypia have AH or malignancy on subsequent excision, the majority do not. Atypia identified by ductal lavage is not associated with a higher risk of developing subsequent breast cancer, even in this high-risk population.

Mammary ductoscopy in the current management of breast disease

BACKGROUND

The majority of benign and malignant lesions of the breast are thought to arise from the epithelium of the terminal duct-lobular unit (TDLU). Although modern mammography, ultrasound, and MRI have improved diagnosis, a final pathological diagnosis currently relies on percutaneous methods of sampling breast lesions. The advantage of mammary ductoscopy (MD) is that it is possible to gain direct access to the ductal system via the nipple. Direct visualization of the duct epithelium allows the operator to precisely locate intraductal lesions, enabling accurate tissue sampling and providing guidance to the surgeon during excision. The intraductal approach may also have a role in screening individuals who are at high risk of breast cancer. Finally, in spontaneous nipple discharge (SND), as biopsy instruments improve and intraductal therapeutics, such as intraductal excision and laser ablation, become a possibility, normal or benign ductoscopic findings may help minimize surgery in selected patients. As MD technology is rapidly advancing, a comprehensive review of current practice will be a valuable guide for clinicians involved in the management of breast disease.

METHODS

This is a review of current ductoscopic practice based on an exhaustive literature search of Pubmed, Google Scholar, and conference proceedings. The search terms "ductoscopy", "duct endoscopy", "mammary", "breast," and "intraductal" were used.

RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS

Duct endoscopes have become smaller in diameter with working channels and improved optical definition. Currently, the role of MD is best defined in the management of SND facilitating targeted surgical excision, potentially avoiding unnecessary surgery, and limiting the extent of surgical resection for benign disease. The role of MD in breast-cancer screening and breast conservation surgery has yet to be fully defined. Few prospective randomized trials exist in the literature, and these would be crucial to validate current opinion, not only in the benign setting but also in breast oncologic surgery.

Tolerability of breast ductal lavage in women from families at high genetic risk of breast cancer

BACKGROUND

Ductal lavage (DL) has been proposed as a minimally-invasive, well-tolerated tool for obtaining breast epithelial cells for cytological evaluation of breast cancer risk. We report DL tolerability in BRCA1/2 mutation-positive and -negative women from an IRB-approved research study.

METHODS

165 BRCA1/2 mutation-positive, 26 mutation-negative and 3 mutation unknown women underwent mammography, breast MRI and DL. Psychological well-being and perceptions of pain were obtained before and after DL, and compared with pain experienced during other screening procedures.

RESULTS

The average anticipated and experienced discomfort rating for DL, 47 and 48 (0-100), were significantly higher (p < 0.01) than the anticipated and experienced discomfort of mammogram (38 and 34), MRI (36 and 25) or nipple aspiration (42 and 27). Women with greater pre-existing emotional distress experienced more DL-related discomfort than they anticipated. Women reporting DL-related pain as worse than expected were nearly three times more likely to refuse subsequent DL than those reporting it as the same or better than expected. Twenty-five percent of participants refused repeat DL at first annual follow-up.

CONCLUSION

DL was anticipated to be and experienced as more uncomfortable than other procedures used in breast cancer screening. Higher underlying psychological distress was associated with decreased DL tolerability.

Does the new automated "HALO" nipple aspiration fluid system really deliver as promised? The answer is "No, but...": A literature review of the role of breast fluid cytology in cancer risk assessment

The HALO breast Pap test is a new automated nipple aspiration fluid (NAF) system that was recently introduced into the market. In an extensive marketing campaign directed principally toward OB/GYN practices, including endorsements from few local news media, HALO has been promoted as the "new Pap screening test for breast." Physicians are encouraged to perform this test on all women, as part of their annual examination, with claims that HALO will detect breast cancers as early as 10 years before mammography. These arguments are made more appealing to physician's offices by highlighting the potential positive financial impact on their practices, without consuming physician time, as medical assistants or technicians can perform this test. As a result of this directed campaign, cytology laboratories are increasingly confronted with implementing the HALO system and clinicians are increasingly soliciting pathologist's input regarding its validity. Yet, there is no data available regarding this new system, outside rare reports sponsored by the manufacturer. In this discussion, I examine the pros and cons of this new NAF system, including literature review of breast fluid cytology, and how it relates to breast cancer risk assessment.

Ductal lavage in women from BRCA1/2 families: is there a future for ductal lavage in women at increased genetic risk of breast cancer?

PURPOSE

Ductal lavage has been used for risk stratification and biomarker development and to identify intermediate endpoints for risk-reducing intervention trials. Little is known about patient characteristics associated with obtaining nipple aspirate fluid (NAF) and adequate cell counts (> or =10 cells) in ductal lavage specimens from BRCA mutation carriers.

METHODS

We evaluated patient characteristics associated with obtaining NAF and adequate cell counts in ductal lavage specimens from the largest cohort of women from BRCA families yet studied (BRCA1/2 = 146, mutation-negative = 23, untested = 2). Fisher's exact test was used to evaluate categorical variables; Wilcoxon nonparametric test was used to evaluate continuous variables associated with NAF or ductal lavage cell count adequacy. Logistic regression was used to identify independent correlates of NAF and ductal lavage cell count adequacy.

RESULTS

From 171 women, 45 (26%) women had NAF and 70 (41%) women had ductal lavage samples with > or =10 cells. Postmenopausal women with intact ovaries compared with premenopausal women [odds ratio (OR), 4.8; P = 0.03] and women without a prior breast cancer history (OR, 5.2; P = 0.04) had an increased likelihood of yielding NAF. Having breast-fed (OR, 3.4; P = 0.001), the presence of NAF before ductal lavage (OR, 3.2; P = 0.003), and being premenopausal (OR, 3.0; P = 0.003) increased the likelihood of ductal lavage cell count adequacy. In known BRCA1/2 mutation carriers, only breast-feeding (OR, 2.5; P = 0.01) and the presence of NAF (OR, 3.0; P = 0.01) were independent correlates of ductal lavage cell count adequacy.

CONCLUSIONS

Ductal lavage is unlikely to be useful in breast cancer screening among BRCA1/2 mutation carriers because the procedure fails to yield adequate specimens sufficient for reliable cytologic diagnosis or to support translational research activities.

Reproducibility of ductal lavage cytology and cellularity over a six month interval in high risk women

BACKGROUND

Ductal lavage (DL) allows repeat sampling of breast epithelium for serial observation in a chemoprevention setting; however, the reproducibility of duct cannulation, cell yield and cytology has not been addressed.

METHODS

We conducted a Phase 2 trial, wherein high risk women chose tamoxifen treatment or observation following an entry DL procedure. We present data from the non-intervention arm of our study to assess the reproducibility of cannulation, cell yield, and cytologic diagnosis from DL of the same duct at two time-points. Inter-observer variability was assessed by a blinded review of Papanicoloau-stained slides by two cytopathologists.

RESULTS

Sixty-five women had a successful lavage of 187 ducts at baseline and chose observation; 63/65 (97%) had a successful lavage 6 months later. Successful recannulation of the same duct was accomplished in 63 women (97%) and162 ducts (87%). Total epithelial cell yields >or=100 were obtained from 57/65 women (88%) and 129/187 ducts (69%) at baseline, and 46/63 women (73%) and 80/162 ducts (49%) at both time-points. Cytologic diagnosis was reproducible in 27/63 (43%) women and 77/162 (48%) ducts. Inter-observer variability for cytologic diagnosis between two observers showed good agreement (kappa = 0.62).

CONCLUSIONS

Recannulation and lavage of the same duct after a 6 month interval can be achieved with high frequency; however, reproducibility of cell yield and cytologic findings from the same duct is sub-optimal, leading to significant attrition of evaluable subjects. The utility of DL for the serial monitoring of breast epithelium is therefore limited.

The reliability of nipple aspirate and ductal lavage in women at increased risk for breast cancer--a potential tool for breast cancer risk assessment and biomarker evaluation

PURPOSE

Ductal lavage, a technique used to sample epithelial cells from breast ducts, has potential use in risk assessment and biomarker evaluation among women at increased risk for breast cancer. However, little is known about the reliability of the procedure.

METHODS

We evaluated the reliability of nipple aspirate (NAF) and ductal lavage at two time points 6 months apart in women at increased risk for breast cancer. Eligible women had a 5-year Gail risk >or=1.66% or lifetime risk of >20%, and/or a family history or personal history of breast cancer. All ducts that produced NAF were cannulated. The kappa statistic was used to evaluate reliability of NAF production, cellular yield, and cytologic diagnosis.

RESULTS

Sixty-nine women (mean age, 47 years) were enrolled over 35 months. Forty-seven returned for a second visit. At baseline, 65% of premenopausal and 41% of postmenopausal women produced NAF (P = 0.05), of which 72% underwent successful lavage of at least one duct. Samples of inadequate cellular material for diagnosis were significantly more likely in postmenopausal women than in premenopausal women (P = 0.04). Of the women who returned for a second visit, 18 of 24 who produced NAF had at least one duct successfully cannulated. Twenty-four ducts in 14 women were lavaged twice. Among these ducts, cellular yield for the two time points was inconsistent (kappa = 0.33 +/- 0.13), and only fair cytologic agreement was observed (kappa = 0.32 +/- 0.15). Ductal lavage was associated with moderate discomfort.

CONCLUSION

Currently, the use of ductal lavage is limited by technical challenges in duct cannulation, inconsistent NAF production, a high rate of inadequate cellular material for diagnosis, fair cytologic reproducibility, and low participant return rates.

The importance of cytologic intrarater and interrater reproducibility: the case of ductal lavage

The reproducibility of a test result is a critical component of its clinical utility. Little information is available concerning the intrarater reproducibility of cytologic assessments. This study evaluated the reproducibility of cytologic interpretation of epithelial cells obtained from ductal lavage (DL), a minimally invasive method used to obtain sample cells from breast tissue. Two cytospin slides were made for each duct sampled. Slides with <10 cells were considered inadequate to make a diagnosis; the remaining slides were classified into mildly atypical, markedly atypical, and malignant cells. Each pair of slides were classified by the more serious diagnosis. DL samples from 100 ducts were independently blind-reviewed by two experienced cytopathologists. All abnormal slides and a random sample of normal slides and slides identified as inadequate for diagnosis (n = 43) were re-reviewed. The kappa for intrarater agreement was 0.59 +/- 0.10 for cytopathologist 1 and 0.33 +/- 0.08 for cytopathologist 2. The kappa for interrater agreement of slides from 100 ducts was 0.46 +/- 0.07. The interrater agreement of the slides that were re-reviewed was kappa = 0.27 +/- 0.09. Fair to moderate intrarater and interrater agreement of DL cytology was observed. Low intrarater and interrater cytologic consistency may compromise the interpretation of clinical studies of DL.

Combined breast ductal lavage and ductal endoscopy for the evaluation of the high-risk breast: a feasibility study

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Evaluation of the ductal epithelium of the breast at increased risk for breast cancer is needed to define the carcinogenic pathway, for risk assessment, and to improve selection of women for chemoprevention therapy. We studied the feasibility of combining breast ductal endoscopy with ductal lavage in the high-risk contralateral breast of women with ipsilateral breast cancer for the evaluation of high-risk ducts and acquisition of ductal epithelial cells for analysis.

METHODS

Breast ducts were studied by ductal lavage and ductal endoscopy, and epithelial cell content studied cytologically and quantitatively.

RESULTS

Twenty-five subjects and 44 ducts, including 22 (50.0%) which did not produce nipple aspirate fluid (NAF), were studied. Cellular atypia was present in five subjects. Ductal endoscopy was performed on 1 or more ducts in 24 subjects. Structural changes were noted in 63.6% of the ducts, most commonly fibrous stranding or bridging. Ductal sampling with endoscopic brush and coil sampling devices provided additional cellular samples of relatively pure ductal epithelial content (> or = 91% purity) in 8/11 subjects.

CONCLUSIONS

Breast ductal endoscopy combined with ductal lavage represents a feasible approach for characterizing the ducts and ductal epithelium of the high-risk breast, especially in a research setting.

The intraductal approach to the breast: raison d'être

Opportunities for the detection, prediction, and treatment of breast cancer exist at three biological levels: systemically via the blood, at the whole organ level, and within the individual ductal lobular structures of the breast. This review covers the evaluation of approaches targeted to the ductal lobular units, where breast cancer begins. Studies to date suggest the presence of 5 to 12 independent ductal lobular systems per breast, each harboring complex cellular fluids contributed by local and systemic processes. New techniques for accessing and interrogating these systems offer the potential to gauge the microenvironment of the breast and distill biological risk profiles.