Vesicular exocytosis under hypotonic conditions shows two distinct populations of dense core vesicles in bovine chromaffin cells

Simultaneous Counting of Molecules in the Halo and Dense-Core of Nanovesicles by Regulating Dynamics of Vesicle Opening

We report the discovery that in the presence of chaotropic anions (SCN⁻) the opening of nanometer biological vesicles at an electrified interface often becomes a two‐step process (around 30 % doublet peaks). We have then used this to independently count molecules in each subvesicular compartment, the halo and protein dense‐core, and the fraction of catecholamine binding to the dense‐core is 68 %. Moreover, we differentiated two distinct populations of large dense‐core vesicles (LDCVs) and quantified their content, which might correspond to immature (43 %) and mature (30 %) LDCVs, to reveal differences in their biogenesis. We speculate this is caused by an increase in the electrostatic attraction between protonated catecholamine and the negatively charged dense‐core following adsorption of SCN⁻.

Simulations of amperometric monitoring of exocytosis: moderate pH variations within the cell-electrode cleft with the buffer diffusion

Amperometry with ultramicroelectrodes is nowadays a routine technique to investigate neurotransmitter secretion by vesicular exocytosis at the single-cell level. This electroanalytical tool allows one to understand many aspects of the vesicular release in terms of mechanisms. However, the electrochemical detection relies on the oxidation of released neurotransmitters that produce 2H⁺ and thus the possible acidification of the cell-electrode cleft. In a previous work, we considered a model involving the H⁺ diffusion or/and its reaction with buffer species. In this article, we report a more general model which takes into account the ability of buffer species to move and to be regenerated within the cell-electrode cleft. As a consequence, the pH within the cleft is still equal to its physiological value regardless of the electrochemical detection of the vesicular release for usual exocytotic cell frequencies. This confirms that amperometry at the single-cell level is a very robust technique for investigating vesicular exocytosis.

A high spatiotemporal study of somatic exocytosis with scanning electrochemical microscopy and nanoITIES electrodes

Extra-synaptic exocytosis is an essential component of cellular communication. A knowledge gap exists in the exocytosis of the non-redox active transmitter acetylcholine. Using the nano-interface between two immiscible electrolyte solutions and scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM), a high resolution spatiotemporal study of acetylcholine exocytosis is shown from an individual neuronal soma. The nanoelectrode was positioned ∼140 nm away from the release sites on the soma using an SECM. The quantitative study enables the obtaining of key information related to cellular communication, including extracellular concentration of the neurotransmitter, cellular permeability, Ca2+ dependence on somatic release, vesicle density, number of molecules released and the release dynamics. Measurements were achieved with a high signal to noise ratio of 6-19. The released neurotransmitter with a concentration of 2.7 (±1.0) μM was detected at the nanoelectrodes with radii of 750 nm to 860 nm.

Monitoring the Effect of Osmotic Stress on Secretory Vesicles and Exocytosis

Amperometry recording of cells subjected to osmotic shock show that secretory cells respond to this physical stress by reducing the exocytosis activity and the amount of neurotransmitter released from vesicles in single exocytosis events. It has been suggested that the reduction in neurotransmitters expelled is due to alterations in membrane biophysical properties when cells shrink in response to osmotic stress and with assumptions made that secretory vesicles in the cell cytoplasm are not affected by extracellular osmotic stress. Amperometry recording of exocytosis monitors what is released from cells the moment a vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane, but does not provide information on the vesicle content before the vesicle fusion is triggered. Therefore, by combining amperometry recording with other complementary analytical methods that are capable of characterizing the secretory vesicles before exocytosis at cells is triggered offers a broader overview for examining how secretory vesicles and the exocytosis process are affected by osmotic shock. We here describe how complementing amperometry recording with intracellular electrochemical cytometry and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) imaging can be used to characterize alterations in secretory vesicles size and neurotransmitter content at chromaffin cells in relation to exocytosis activity before and after exposure to osmotic stress. By linking the quantitative information gained from experiments using all three analytical methods, conclusions were previously made that secretory vesicles respond to extracellular osmotic stress by shrinking in size and reducing the vesicle quantal size to maintain a constant vesicle neurotransmitter concentration. Hence, this gives some clarification regarding why vesicles, in response to osmotic stress, reduce the amount neurotransmitters released during exocytosis release. The amperometric recordings here indicate this is a reversible process and that vesicle after osmotic shock are refilled with neurotransmitters when placed cells are reverted into an isotonic environment.

Extracellular Osmotic Stress Reduces the Vesicle Size while Keeping a Constant Neurotransmitter Concentration

Secretory cells respond to hypertonic stress by cell shrinking, which causes a reduction in exocytosis activity and the amount of signaling molecules released from single exocytosis events. These changes in exocytosis have been suggested to result from alterations in biophysical properties of cell cytoplasm and plasma membrane, based on the assumption that osmotic stress does not affect the secretory vesicle content and size prior to exocytosis. To further investigate whether vesicles in secretory cells are affected by the osmolality of the extracellular environment, we used intracellular electrochemical cytometry together with transmission electron microscopy imaging to quantify and determine the catecholamine concentration of dense core vesicles in situ before and after cell exposure to osmotic stress. In addition, single cell amperometry recordings of exocytosis at chromaffin cells were used to monitor the effect on exocytosis activity and quantal release when cells were exposed to osmotic stress. Here we show that hypertonic stress hampers exocytosis secretion after the first pool of readily releasable vesicles have been fused and that extracellular osmotic stress causes catecholamine filled vesicles to shrink, mainly by reducing the volume of the halo solution surrounding the protein matrix in dense core vesicles. In addition, the vesicles demonstrate the ability to perform adjustments in neurotransmitter content during shrinking, and intracellular amperometry measurements in situ suggest that vesicles reduce the catecholamine content to maintain a constant concentration within the vesicle compartment. Hence, the secretory vesicles in the cell cytoplasm are highly affected and respond to extracellular osmotic stress, which gives a new perspective to the cause of reduction in quantal size by these vesicles when undergoing exocytosis.

'Full fusion' is not ineluctable during vesicular exocytosis of neurotransmitters by endocrine cells

Vesicular exocytosis is an essential and ubiquitous process in neurons and endocrine cells by which neurotransmitters are released in synaptic clefts or extracellular fluids. It involves the fusion of a vesicle loaded with chemical messengers with the cell membrane through a nanometric fusion pore. In endocrine cells, unless it closes after some flickering ('Kiss-and-Run' events), this initial pore is supposed to expand exponentially, leading to a full integration of the vesicle membrane into the cell membrane-a stage called 'full fusion'. We report here a compact analytical formulation that allows precise measurements of the fusion pore expansion extent and rate to be extracted from individual amperometric spike time courses. These data definitively establish that, during release of catecholamines, fusion pores enlarge at most to approximately one-fifth of the radius of their parent vesicle, hence ruling out the ineluctability of 'full fusion'.

Electrochemical nanoprobes for the chemical detection of neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters, acting as chemical messengers, play an important role in neurotransmission, which governs many functional aspects of nervous system activity. Electrochemical probes have proven a very useful technique to study neurotransmission, especially to quantify and qualify neurotransmitters. With the emerging interests in probing neurotransmission at the level of single cells, single vesicles, as well as single synapses, probes that enable detection of neurotransmitters at the nanometer scale become vitally important. Electrochemical nanoprobes have been successfully employed in nanometer spatial resolution imaging of single nanopores of Si membrane and single Au nanoparticles, providing both topographical and chemical information, thus holding great promise for nanometer spatial study of neurotransmission. Here we present the current state of electrochemical nanoprobes for chemical detection of neurotransmitters, focusing on two types of nanoelectrodes, i.e. carbon nanoelectrode and nano-ITIES pipet electrode.

Nanopipet-Based Liquid-Liquid Interface Probes for the Electrochemical Detection of Acetylcholine, Tryptamine, and Serotonin via Ionic Transfer

A nanoscale interface between two immiscible electrolyte solutions (ITIES) provides a unique analytical platform for the detection of ionic species of biological interest such as neurotransmitters and neuromodulators, especially those that are otherwise difficult to detect directly on a carbon electrode without electrode modification. We report the detection of acetylcholine, serotonin, and tryptamine on nanopipet electrode probes with sizes ranging from a radius of ≈7 to 35 nm. The transfer of these analytes across a 1,2-dichloroethane/water interface was studied by cyclic voltammetry and amperometry. Well-defined sigmoidal voltammograms were observed on the nanopipet electrodes within the potential window of artificial seawater for acetylcholine and tryptamine. The half wave transfer potential, E1/2, of acetylcholine, tryptamine, and serotonin were found to be -0.11, -0.25, and -0.47 V vs E(1/2,TEA) (term is defined later in experimental), respectively. The detection was linear in the range of 0.25-6 mM for acetylcholine and of 0.5-10 mM for tryptamine in artificial seawater. Transfer of serotonin was linear in the range of 0.15-8 mM in LiCl solution. The limit of detection for serotonin in LiCl on a radius ≈21 nm nanopipet electrode was 77 μM, for acetylcholine on a radius ≈7 nm nanopipet electrode was 205 μM, and for tryptamine on a radius ≈19 nm nanopipet electrode was 86 μM. Nanopipet-supported ITIES probes have great potential to be used in nanometer spatial resolution measurements for the detection of neurotransmitters.

Amperometric measurements at cells support a role for dynamin in the dilation of the fusion pore during exocytosis

Dynamin is a GTPase mechanochemical enzyme involved in the late steps of endocytosis, where it separates the endocytotic vesicle from the cell membrane. However, recent reports have emphasized its role in exocytosis. In this case, dynamin may contribute to the control of the exocytotic pore, thus suggesting a direct control on the efflux of neurotransmitters. Dynasore, a selective inhibitor of the GTPase activity of dynamin, was used to investigate the role of dynamin in exocytosis. Exocytosis was analyzed by amperometry, thus revealing that dynasore inhibits exocytosis in a dose-dependent manner. Analysis of the exocytotic peaks shows that the inhibition of the GTPase activity of dynamin leads to shorter, smaller events. This observation, together with the rapid effect of dynasore, suggests that the blocking of the GTPase induces the formation of a more narrow and short-lived fusion pore. These results suggest that the GTPase properties of dynamin are involved in the duration and kinetics of exocytotic release. Interestingly, and in strong contrast with its role in endocytosis, the mechanochemical properties of dynamin appear to contribute to the dilation and stability of the pore during exocytosis.

Single cell amperometry reveals glycocalyx hinders the release of neurotransmitters during exocytosis

The diffusional hindrance of the glycocalyx along the cell surface on exocytotic peaks, observed with single cell amperometry, was investigated. Partial digestion of the glycocalyx with neuraminidase led to the observation of faster peaks, as shown by varied peak parameters. This result indicates that diffusion of small molecules in the partially digested glycocalyx is 2.2 faster than in the intact glycocalyx. Similarly, neutralization of the negative charges present in the cell microenvironment led to faster peak kinetics. The analysis of the vesicular efflux indicates that the diffusion coefficient of dopamine at the cell surface is at most 45% of the diffusion coefficient in free solution. This study shows that the glycocalyx plays an important role in the diffusion kinetics of processes along the cell surface, including exocytotic events.

Monitoring of vesicular exocytosis from single cells using micrometer and nanometer-sized electrochemical sensors

Communication between cells by release of specific chemical messengers via exocytosis plays crucial roles in biological process. Electrochemical detection based on ultramicroelectrodes (UMEs) has become one of the most powerful techniques in real-time monitoring of an extremely small number of released molecules during very short time scales, owing to its intrinsic advantages such as fast response, excellent sensitivity, and high spatiotemporal resolution. Great successes have been achieved in the use of UME methods to obtain quantitative and kinetic information about released chemical messengers and to reveal the molecular mechanism in vesicular exocytosis. In this paper, we review recent developments in monitoring exocytosis by use of UMEs-electrochemical-based techniques including electrochemical detection using micrometer and nanometer-sized sensors, scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM), and UMEs implemented in lab-on-a-chip (LOC) microsystems. These advances are of great significance in obtaining a better understanding of vesicular exocytosis and chemical communications between cells, and will facilitate developments in many fields, including analytical chemistry, biological science, and medicine. Furthermore, future developments in electrochemical probing of exocytosis are also proposed.

In Vitro Electrochemistry of Biological Systems

This article reviews recent work involving electrochemical methods for in vitro analysis of biomolecules, with an emphasis on detection and manipulation at and of single cells and cultures of cells. The techniques discussed include constant potential amperometry, chronoamperometry, cellular electroporation, scanning electrochemical microscopy, and microfluidic platforms integrated with electrochemical detection. The principles of these methods are briefly described, followed in most cases with a short description of an analytical or biological application and its significance. The use of electrochemical methods to examine specific mechanistic issues in exocytosis is highlighted, as a great deal of recent work has been devoted to this application.

Autocrine signaling involved in cell volume regulation: the role of released transmitters and plasma membrane receptors

Cell volume regulation is a basic homeostatic mechanism transcendental for the normal physiology and function of cells. It is mediated principally by the activation of osmolyte transport pathways that result in net changes in solute concentration that counteract cell volume challenges in its constancy. This process has been described to be regulated by a complex assortment of intracellular signal transduction cascades. Recently, several studies have demonstrated that alterations in cell volume induce the release of a wide variety of transmitters including hormones, ATP and neurotransmitters, which have been proposed to act as extracellular signals that regulate the activation of cell volume regulatory mechanisms. In addition, changes in cell volume have also been reported to activate plasma membrane receptors (including tyrosine kinase receptors, G-protein coupled receptors and integrins) that have been demonstrated to participate in the regulatory process of cell volume. In this review, we summarize recent studies about the role of changes in cell volume in the regulation of transmitter release as well as in the activation of plasma membrane receptors and their further implications in the regulation of the signaling machinery that regulates the activation of osmolyte flux pathways. We propose that the autocrine regulation of Ca2+-dependent and tyrosine phosphorylation-dependent signaling pathways by the activation of plasma membrane receptors and swelling-induced transmitter release is necessary for the activation/regulation of osmolyte efflux pathways and cell volume recovery. Furthermore, we emphasize the importance of studying these extrinsic signals because of their significance in the understanding of the physiology of cell volume regulation and its role in cell biology in vivo, where the constraint of the extracellular space might enhance the autocrine or even paracrine signaling induced by these released transmitters.

The nature and efficiency of neurotransmitter exocytosis also depend on physicochemical parameters

Exocytosis is an important biological process used by cells to deliver messengers or effectors to target cells with high spatial, quantitative, and kinetic precision. This process occurs by interaction and fusion of vesicles containing the (bio)chemical information with the cell membrane to release their contents into the surrounding medium. Because of its importance for life, this mechanism underlies many biological controlling factors, including different families of proteins and enzymes. Tremendous efforts have been made over the last decade toward their determination. However, in parallel, many studies have also shown that the physical and chemical characteristics of the exocytosis actors (vesicle, membrane, and extracellular medium) could directly affect the quantitative or kinetic features of secretion. The major pieces evidence for this influence, which have been reported in the literature, are reviewed herein. It demonstrates undoubtedly that pure biological aspects cannot be segregated from the physicochemical context of living mechanisms.

Relationship between amperometric pre-spike feet and secretion granule composition in chromaffin cells: an overview

Amperometry is a simple and powerful technique to study exocytosis at the single cell level. By positioning and polarizing (at an appropriate potential at which the molecules released by the cell can be oxidized) a carbon fiber microelectrode at the top of the cell, each exocytotic event is detected as an amperometric spike. More particularly, a portion of these spikes has previously been shown to present a foot, i.e. a small pedestal of current that precedes the spike itself. Among the important number of works dealing with the monitoring of exocytosis by amperometry under different conditions, only a few studies focus on amperometric spikes with a foot. In this work, by coupling our previous and recent experiments on chromaffin cells (that release catecholamines after stimulation) with literature data, we bring more light on what an amperometric foot and particularly its features, represents.