Rotational and translational dynamics of ras proteins upon binding to model membrane systems

Transmembrane proteins-Different anchoring systems

Transmembrane proteins are active in amphipathic environments. To stabilize the protein in such surrounding the exposure of hydrophobic residues on the protein surface is required. Transmembrane proteins are responsible for the transport of various molecules. Therefore, they often represent structures in the form of channels. This analysis focused on the stability and local flexibility of transmembrane proteins, particularly those related to their biological activity. Different forms of anchorage were identified using the fuzzy oil-drop model (FOD) and its modified form, FOD-M. The mainly helical as well as β-barrel structural forms are compared with respect to the mechanism of stabilization in the cell membrane. The different anchoring system was found to stabilize protein molecules with possible local fluctuation.

A structural model of a Ras-Raf signalosome

The protein K-Ras functions as a molecular switch in signaling pathways regulating cell growth. In the human mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway, which is implicated in many cancers, multiple K-Ras proteins are thought to assemble at the cell membrane with Ras effector proteins from the Raf family. Here we propose an atomistic structural model for such an assembly. Our starting point was an asymmetric guanosine triphosphate-mediated K-Ras dimer model, which we generated using unbiased molecular dynamics simulations and verified with mutagenesis experiments. Adding further K-Ras monomers in a head-to-tail fashion led to a compact helical assembly, a model we validated using electron microscopy and cell-based experiments. This assembly stabilizes K-Ras in its active state and presents composite interfaces to facilitate Raf binding. Guided by existing experimental data, we then positioned C-Raf, the downstream kinase MEK1 and accessory proteins (Galectin-3 and 14-3-3σ) on and around the helical assembly. The resulting Ras-Raf signalosome model offers an explanation for a large body of data on MAPK signaling.

Membrane-bound KRAS approximates an entropic ensemble of configurations

KRAS4B is a membrane-anchored signaling protein and a primary target in cancer research. Predictions from molecular dynamics simulations that have previously shaped our mechanistic understanding of KRAS signaling disagree with recent experimental results from neutron reflectometry, NMR, and thermodynamic binding studies. To gain insight into these discrepancies, we compare this body of biophysical data to back-calculated experimental results from a series of molecular simulations that implement different subsets of molecular interactions. Our results show that KRAS4B approximates an entropic ensemble of configurations at model membranes containing 30% phosphatidylserine lipids, which is not significantly shaped by interactions between the globular G-domain of KRAS4B and the lipid membrane. These findings revise our understanding of KRAS signaling and promote a model in which the protein samples the accessible conformational space in a near-uniform manner while being available to bind to effector proteins.

RAS Nanoclusters Selectively Sort Distinct Lipid Headgroups and Acyl Chains

RAS proteins are lipid-anchored small GTPases that switch between the GTP-bound active and GDP-bound inactive states. RAS isoforms, including HRAS, NRAS and splice variants KRAS4A and KRAS4B, are some of the most frequently mutated proteins in cancer. In particular, constitutively active mutants of KRAS comprise ∼80% of all RAS oncogenic mutations and are found in 98% of pancreatic, 45% of colorectal and 31% of lung tumors. Plasma membrane (PM) is the primary location of RAS signaling in biology and pathology. Thus, a better understanding of how RAS proteins localize to and distribute on the PM is critical to better comprehend RAS biology and to develop new strategies to treat RAS pathology. In this review, we discuss recent findings on how RAS proteins sort lipids as they undergo macromolecular assembly on the PM. We also discuss how RAS/lipid nanoclusters serve as signaling platforms for the efficient recruitment of effectors and signal transduction, and how perturbing the PM biophysical properties affect the spatial distribution of RAS isoforms and their functions.

Unveiling the Dynamics of KRAS4b on Lipid Model Membranes

Small GTPase proteins are ubiquitous and responsible for regulating several processes related to cell growth and differentiation. Mutations that stabilize their active state can lead to uncontrolled cell proliferation and cancer. Although these proteins are well characterized at the cellular scale, the molecular mechanisms governing their functions are still poorly understood. In addition, there is limited information about the regulatory function of the cell membrane which supports their activity. Thus, we have studied the dynamics and conformations of the farnesylated KRAS4b in various membrane model systems, ranging from binary fluid mixtures to heterogeneous raft mimics. Our approach combines long time-scale coarse-grained (CG) simulations and Markov state models to dissect the membrane-supported dynamics of KRAS4b. Our simulations reveal that protein dynamics is mainly modulated by the presence of anionic lipids and to some extent by the nucleotide state (activation) of the protein. In addition, our results suggest that both the farnesyl and the polybasic hypervariable region (HVR) are responsible for its preferential partitioning within the liquid-disordered (Ld) domains in membranes, potentially enhancing the formation of membrane-driven signaling platforms.

Palmitoylation as a Key Regulator of Ras Localization and Function

Ras proteins require membrane association for proper function. This process is tightly regulated by reversible palmitoylation that controls not only the distribution over different subcellular compartments but also Ras compartmentalization within membrane subdomains. As a result, there is a growing interest in protein palmitoylation and the enzymes that control this process. In this minireview, we discuss how palmitoylation affects the localization and function of Ras proteins. A better understanding of the regulatory mechanism controlling protein lipidation is expected to provide new insights into the functional role of these modifications and may ultimately lead to the development of novel therapeutic approaches.

Raf promotes dimerization of the Ras G-domain with increased allosteric connections

Ras dimerization is critical for Raf activation. Here we show that the Ras binding domain of Raf (Raf-RBD) induces robust Ras dimerization at low surface densities on supported lipid bilayers and, to a lesser extent, in solution as observed by size exclusion chromatography and confirmed by SAXS. Community network analysis based on molecular dynamics simulations shows robust allosteric connections linking the two Raf-RBD D113 residues located in the Galectin scaffold protein binding site of each Raf-RBD molecule and 85 Å apart on opposite ends of the dimer complex. Our results suggest that Raf-RBD binding and Ras dimerization are concerted events that lead to a high-affinity signaling complex at the membrane that we propose is an essential unit in the macromolecular assembly of higher order Ras/Raf/Galectin complexes important for signaling through the Ras/Raf/MEK/ERK pathway.

Uncovering a membrane-distal conformation of KRAS available to recruit RAF to the plasma membrane

The small GTPase KRAS is localized at the plasma membrane where it functions as a molecular switch, coupling extracellular growth factor stimulation to intracellular signaling networks. In this process, KRAS recruits effectors, such as RAF kinase, to the plasma membrane where they are activated by a series of complex molecular steps. Defining the membrane-bound state of KRAS is fundamental to understanding the activation of RAF kinase and in evaluating novel therapeutic opportunities for the inhibition of oncogenic KRAS-mediated signaling. We combined multiple biophysical measurements and computational methodologies to generate a consensus model for authentically processed, membrane-anchored KRAS. In contrast to the two membrane-proximal conformations previously reported, we identify a third significantly populated state using a combination of neutron reflectivity, fast photochemical oxidation of proteins (FPOP), and NMR. In this highly populated state, which we refer to as "membrane-distal" and estimate to comprise ∼90% of the ensemble, the G-domain does not directly contact the membrane but is tethered via its C-terminal hypervariable region and carboxymethylated farnesyl moiety, as shown by FPOP. Subsequent interaction of the RAF1 RAS binding domain with KRAS does not significantly change G-domain configurations on the membrane but affects their relative populations. Overall, our results are consistent with a directional fly-casting mechanism for KRAS, in which the membrane-distal state of the G-domain can effectively recruit RAF kinase from the cytoplasm for activation at the membrane.

Quantitative biophysical analysis defines key components modulating recruitment of the GTPase KRAS to the plasma membrane

The gene encoding the GTPase KRAS is frequently mutated in pancreatic, lung, and colorectal cancers. The KRAS fraction in the plasma membrane (PM) correlates with activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway and subsequent cellular proliferation. Understanding KRAS's interaction with the PM is challenging given the complexity of the cellular environment. To gain insight into key components necessary for KRAS signal transduction at the PM, we used synthetic membranes such as liposomes and giant unilamellar vesicles. Using surface plasmon resonance (SPR) spectroscopy, we demonstrated that KRAS and Raf-1 proto-oncogene Ser/Thr kinase (RAF1) domains interact with these membranes primarily through electrostatic interactions with negatively charged lipids reinforced by additional interactions involving phosphatidyl ethanolamine and cholesterol. We found that the RAF1 region spanning RBD through CRD (RBDCRD) interacts with the membrane significantly more strongly than the isolated RBD or CRD domains and synergizes KRAS partitioning to the membrane. We also found that calmodulin and phosphodiesterase 6 delta (PDE6δ), but not galectin3 previously proposed to directly interact with KRAS, passively sequester KRAS and prevent it from partitioning into the PM. RAF1 RBDCRD interacted with membranes preferentially at nonraft lipid domains. Moreover, a C-terminal O-methylation was crucial for KRAS membrane localization. These results contribute to a better understanding of how the KRAS-membrane interaction is tuned by multiple factors whose identification could inform drug discovery efforts to disrupt this critical interaction in diseases such as cancer.

Elastin-like Peptide in Confinement: FT-IR and NMR T 1 Relaxation Data

We employed FT-IR and NMR experiments to investigate the influence of a cell-mimicking crowding environment on the structure and dynamics of an elastin-like peptide (ELP) with the sequence GVG(VPGVG)3, which – due to a high number of hydrophobic amino acid side chains – exhibits an inverse temperature transition (ITT). As simplified crowding agent, we used 30 wt% Ficoll. The FT-IR data revealed the well-known broad ITT above ~25°C, as observed by the decrease of the relative population of random coil structures and the concomitant increase of type II β-turns. Interestingly, the addition of Ficoll leads to a destabilizing effect of type II β-turn structures. This is in contrast to the expected excluded-volume effect of the macromolecular crowder, but can be explained by weak interactions of the peptide with the polysaccharide chains of the crowding agent. Further, the crowding agent leads to the onset of a reversal of the folding transition at high temperatures. The full assignment of the ELP allowed for a residue-specific investigation of the dynamic behavior of ELP by NMR. Due to a strong change of microscopic viscosity between native/buffered conditions and crowded conditions, relaxation data remain inconclusive with respect to the observation of an ITT. Hence, no quantitative details in terms of internal conformational changes can be obtained. However, temperature dependent differences in the 13C relaxation behavior between core and terminal parts of the peptide indicate temperature induced changes in the internal dynamics with generally higher internal mobility at chain ends: This is in full agreement with FT-IR data. In harmony with the FT-IR analysis, macromolecular crowding does not lead to significant changes in the relaxation behavior.

Study of Förster Resonance Energy Transfer to Lipid Domain Markers Ascertains Partitioning of Semisynthetic Lipidated N-Ras in Lipid Raft Nanodomains

Cellular membranes are heterogeneous planar lipid bilayers displaying lateral phase separation with the nanometer-scale liquid-ordered phase (also known as "lipid rafts") surrounded by the liquid-disordered phase. Many membrane-associated proteins were found to permanently integrate into the lipid rafts, which is critical for their biological function. Isoforms H and N of Ras GTPase possess a unique ability to switch their lipid domain preference depending on the type of bound guanine nucleotide (GDP or GTP). This behavior, however, has never been demonstrated in vitro in model bilayers with recombinant proteins and therefore has been attributed to the action of binding of Ras to other proteins at the membrane surface. In this paper, we report the observation of the nucleotide-dependent switch of lipid domain preferences of the semisynthetic lipidated N-Ras in lipid raft vesicles in the absence of additional proteins. To detect segregation of Ras molecules in raft and disordered lipid domains, we measured Förster resonance energy transfer between the donor fluorophore, mant, attached to the protein-bound guanine nucleotides, and the acceptor, rhodamine-conjugated lipid, localized into the liquid-disordered domains. Herein, we established that N-Ras preferentially populated raft domains when bound to mant-GDP, while losing its preference for rafts when it was associated with a GTP mimic, mant-GppNHp. At the same time, the isolated lipidated C-terminal peptide of N-Ras was found to be localized outside of the liquid-ordered rafts, most likely in the bulk-disordered lipid. Substitution of the N-terminal G domain of N-Ras with a homologous G domain of H-Ras disrupted the nucleotide-dependent lipid domain switch.

Influence of isoform-specific Ras lipidation motifs on protein partitioning and dynamics in model membrane systems of various complexity

The partitioning of the lipidated signaling proteins N-Ras and K-Ras4B into various membrane systems, ranging from single-component fluid bilayers, binary fluid mixtures, heterogeneous raft model membranes up to complex native-like lipid mixtures (GPMVs) in the absence and presence of integral membrane proteins have been explored in the last decade in a combined chemical-biological and biophysical approach. These studies have revealed pronounced isoform-specific differences regarding the lateral distribution in membranes and formation of protein-rich membrane domains. In this context, we will also discuss the effects of lipid head group structure and charge density on the partitioning behavior of the lipoproteins. Moreover, the dynamic properties of N-Ras and K-Ras4B have been studied in different model membrane systems and native-like crowded milieus. Addition of crowding agents such as Ficoll and its monomeric unit, sucrose, gradually favors clustering of Ras proteins in forming small oligomers in the bulk; only at very high crowder concentrations association is disfavored.

Phosphorylation Weakens but Does Not Inhibit Membrane Binding and Clustering of K-Ras4B

K-Ras4B is one of the most frequently mutated Ras isoforms in cancer. The signaling activity of K-Ras4B depends on its localization to the plasma membrane (PM), which is mainly mediated by its polybasic farnesylated C-terminus. On top of the constitutive cycles that maintain the PM enrichment of K-Ras4B, conditional phosphorylation at Ser181 located within this motif has been found to be involved in regulating K-Ras4B's cell distribution and signaling activity. However, discordant observations have undermined our understanding of the role this phosphorylation plays. Here, we report an efficient strategy for producing K-Ras4B simultaneously bearing phosphate, farnesyl, and methyl modifications on a preparative scale, a very useful in vitro system when used in concert with model biomembranes. By using this system, we determined that phosphorylation at Ser181 does not fully inhibit membrane binding and clustering of K-Ras4B but reduces its membrane binding affinity, depending on membrane fluidity. In addition, phosphorylated K-Ras4B maintains tight association with its cytosolic shuttle protein PDEδ. After delivering K-Ras4B containing nonhydrolyzable phosphoserine mimetic into cells, the protein displayed a decreasing PM distribution compared with nonphosphorylable K-Ras4B, implying that phosphorylation might facilitate the dissociation of K-Ras4B from the PM. In addition, phosphorylation does not alter the localization of K-Ras4B in the liquid-disordered lipid subdomains of the membrane but slightly alters the thermotropic properties of K-Ras4B-incorporated membranes probably due to minor differences in membrane partitioning and dynamics. These results provide novel mechanistic insights into the role that phosphorylation at Ser181 plays in regulating K-Ras4B's distribution and activity.

Regulation of K-Ras4B Membrane Binding by Calmodulin

K-Ras4B is a membrane-bound small GTPase with a prominent role in cancer development. It contains a polybasic farnesylated C-terminus that is required for the correct localization and clustering of K-Ras4B in distinct membrane domains. PDEδ and the Ca(2+)-binding protein calmodulin (CaM) are known to function as potential binding partners for farnesylated Ras proteins. However, they differ in the number of interaction sites with K-Ras4B, leading to different modes of interaction, and thus affect the subcellular distribution of K-Ras4B in different ways. Although it is clear that Ca(2+)-bound CaM can play a role in the dynamic spatial cycle of K-Ras4B in the cell, the exact molecular mechanism is only partially understood. In this biophysical study, we investigated the effect of Ca(2+)/CaM on the interaction of GDP- and GTP-loaded K-Ras4B with heterogeneous model biomembranes by using a combination of different spectroscopic and imaging techniques. The results show that Ca(2+)/CaM is able to extract K-Ras4B from negatively charged membranes in a nucleotide-independent manner. Moreover, the data demonstrate that the complex of Ca(2+)/CaM and K-Ras4B is stable in the presence of anionic membranes and shows no membrane binding. Finally, the influence of Ca(2+)/CaM on the interaction of K-Ras4B with membranes is compared with that of PDEδ, which was investigated in a previous study. Although both CaM and PDEδ exhibit a hydrophobic binding pocket for farnesyl, they have different effects on membrane binding of K-Ras4B and hence should be capable of regulating K-Ras4B plasma membrane localization in the cell.

Computational and biochemical characterization of two partially overlapping interfaces and multiple weak-affinity K-Ras dimers

Recent studies found that membrane-bound K-Ras dimers are important for biological function. However, the structure and thermodynamic stability of these complexes remained unknown because they are hard to probe by conventional approaches. Combining data from a wide range of computational and experimental approaches, here we describe the structure, dynamics, energetics and mechanism of assembly of multiple K-Ras dimers. Utilizing a range of techniques for the detection of reactive surfaces, protein-protein docking and molecular simulations, we found that two largely polar and partially overlapping surfaces underlie the formation of multiple K-Ras dimers. For validation we used mutagenesis, electron microscopy and biochemical assays under non-denaturing conditions. We show that partial disruption of a predicted interface through charge reversal mutation of apposed residues reduces oligomerization while introduction of cysteines at these positions enhanced dimerization likely through the formation of an intermolecular disulfide bond. Free energy calculations indicated that K-Ras dimerization involves direct but weak protein-protein interactions in solution, consistent with the notion that dimerization is facilitated by membrane binding. Taken together, our atomically detailed analyses provide unique mechanistic insights into K-Ras dimer formation and membrane organization as well as the conformational fluctuations and equilibrium thermodynamics underlying these processes.

The Ras G Domain Lacks the Intrinsic Propensity to Form Dimers

Ras GTPase is a molecular switch controlling a number of cellular pathways including growth, proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. Recent reports indicated that Ras undergoes dimerization at the membrane surface through protein-protein interactions. If firmly established this property of Ras would require profound reassessment of a large amount of published data and modification of the Ras signaling paradigm. One proposed mechanism of dimerization involves formation of salt bridges between the two GTPase domains (G domains) leading to formation of a compact dimer as observed in Ras crystal structures. In this work, we interrogated the intrinsic ability of Ras to self-associate in solution by creating conditions of high local concentration through irreversibly tethering the two G domains together at their unstructured C-terminal tails. We evaluated possible self-association in this inverted tandem conjugate via analysis of the time-domain fluorescence anisotropy and NMR chemical shift perturbations. We did not observe the increased rotational correlation time expected for the G domain dimer. Variation of the ionic strength (to modulate stability of the salt bridges) did not affect the rotational correlation time in the tandem further supporting independent rotational diffusion of two G domains. In a parallel line of experiments to detect and map weak self-association of the G domains, we analyzed NMR chemical shifts perturbations at a number of sites near the crystallographic dimer interface. The nearly complete lack of chemical shift perturbations in the tandem construct supported a simple model with the independent G domains repelled from each other by their overall negative charge. These results lead us to the conclusion that self-association of the G domains cannot be responsible for homodimerization of Ras reported in the literature.

Computational Equilibrium Thermodynamic and Kinetic Analysis of K-Ras Dimerization through an Effector Binding Surface Suggests Limited Functional Role

Dimer formation is believed to have a substantial impact on regulating K-Ras function. However, the evidence for dimerization and the molecular details of the process are scant. In this study, we characterize a K-Ras pseudo-C2-symmetric dimerization interface involving the effector interacting β2-strand. We used structure matching and all-atom molecular dynamics (MD) simulations to predict, refine, and investigate the stability of this interface. Our MD simulation suggested that the β2-dimer is potentially stable and remains relatively close to its initial conformation due to the presence of a number of hydrogen bonds, ionic salt bridges, and other favorable interactions. We carried out potential of mean force calculations to determine the relative binding strength of the interface. The results of these calculations indicated that the β2 dimerization interface provides a weak binding free energy in solution and a dissociation constant that is close to 1 mM. Analyses of Brownian dynamics simulations suggested an association rate kon ≈ 10(5)-10(6) M(-1) s(-1). Combining these observations with available literature data, we propose that formation of auto-inhibited β2 K-Ras dimers is possible but its fraction in cells is likely very small under normal physiologic conditions.

Translational Dynamics of Lipidated Ras Proteins in the Presence of Crowding Agents and Compatible Osmolytes

Ras proteins are small GTPases and are involved in transmitting signals that control cell growth, differentiation, and proliferation. Since the cell cytoplasm is crowded with different macromolecules, understanding the translational dynamics of Ras proteins in crowded environments is crucial to yielding deeper insight into their reactivity and function. Herein, the translational dynamics of lipidated N-Ras and K-Ras4B is studied in the bulk and in the presence of a macromolecular crowder (Ficoll) and the compatible osmolyte and microcrowder sucrose by fluorescence correlation spectroscopy. The results reveal that N-Ras forms dimers due to the presence of its lipid moiety in the hypervariable region, whereas K-Ras4B remains in its monomeric form in the bulk. Addition of a macromolecular crowding agent gradually favors clustering of the Ras proteins. In 20 wt % Ficoll N-Ras forms trimers and K-Ras4B dimers. Concentrations of sucrose up to 10 wt % foster formation of N-Ras trimers and K-Ras dimers as well. The results can be rationalized in terms of the excluded-volume effect, which enhances the association of the proteins, and, for the higher concentrations, by limited-hydration conditions. The results of this study shed new light on the association state of these proteins in a crowded environment. This is of particular interest for the Ras proteins, because their solution state-monomeric or clustered-influences their membrane-partitioning behavior and their interplay with cytosolic interaction partners.

Oncogenic and RASopathy-associated K-RAS mutations relieve membrane-dependent occlusion of the effector-binding site

K-RAS4B (Kirsten rat sarcoma viral oncogene homolog 4B) is a prenylated, membrane-associated GTPase protein that is a critical switch for the propagation of growth factor signaling pathways to diverse effector proteins, including rapidly accelerated fibrosarcoma (RAF) kinases and RAS-related protein guanine nucleotide dissociation stimulator (RALGDS) proteins. Gain-of-function KRAS mutations occur frequently in human cancers and predict poor clinical outcome, whereas germ-line mutations are associated with developmental syndromes. However, it is not known how these mutations affect K-RAS association with biological membranes or whether this impacts signal transduction. Here, we used solution NMR studies of K-RAS4B tethered to nanodiscs to investigate lipid bilayer-anchored K-RAS4B and its interactions with effector protein RAS-binding domains (RBDs). Unexpectedly, we found that the effector-binding region of activated K-RAS4B is occluded by interaction with the membrane in one of the NMR-observable, and thus highly populated, conformational states. Binding of the RAF isoform ARAF and RALGDS RBDs induced marked reorientation of K-RAS4B from the occluded state to RBD-specific effector-bound states. Importantly, we found that two Noonan syndrome-associated mutations, K5N and D153V, which do not affect the GTPase cycle, relieve the occluded orientation by directly altering the electrostatics of two membrane interaction surfaces. Similarly, the most frequent KRAS oncogenic mutation G12D also drives K-RAS4B toward an exposed configuration. Further, the D153V and G12D mutations increase the rate of association of ARAF-RBD with lipid bilayer-tethered K-RAS4B. We revealed a mechanism of K-RAS4B autoinhibition by membrane sequestration of its effector-binding site, which can be disrupted by disease-associated mutations. Stabilizing the autoinhibitory interactions between K-RAS4B and the membrane could be an attractive target for anticancer drug discovery.