Hexafluoroisopropanol-Promoted or Brønsted Acid-Mediated Photochemical [2+2] Cycloadditions of Alkynes with Maleimides

Photocatalytic CeCl3-Promoted C-H Alkenylation and Alkynylation of Alkanes

The reemerging field of photoredox catalysis offers numerous advantages towards the development of novel, sustainable and easy-to-execute organic transformations. Herein, we report a light-triggered application of cerium complexes towards the C-H alkenylation and alkynylation of alkanes. An indirect HAT-mediated photocatalytic protocol was developed, using a cerium salt (CeCl3 ⋅ 7H2O) and a chlorine source (TBACl) as the catalytic system. A variety of cyclic and linear hydrocarbons were utilized, delivering the corresponding alkenylation or alkynylation products in good to high yields, displaying high regioselectivity. A series of mechanistic experiments were conducted.

Expanding the Use of Benzothioxanthene Imides to Photochemistry: Eco-Friendly Aerobic Oxidation of Sulfides to Sulfoxides

The sulfoxide moiety is one of the most commonly utilized groups in pharmaceutical and industrial chemistry. The need for sustainability and easy accessibility to sulfoxide moieties is deemed necessary, due to its ubiquity in natural products and potentially pharmaceutically active compounds. In this context, we report herein a sustainable, aerobic and environmentally friendly photochemical protocol based on the use of a benzothioxathene imide as the photocatalyst to selectively oxidize sulfides under mild irradiation (456 nm), in very low catalyst loading (0.01 mol %) and on water. In addition, to demonstrate the compatibility of our protocol with wide scope of substrates, the latter was successfully applied to the synthesis of the biologically-active Sulforaphane and Modafinil.

Photochemical Aerobic Upcycling of Polystyrene Plastics

Although the introduction of plastics has improved humanity's everyday life, the fast accumulation of plastic waste, including microplastics and nanoplastics, have created numerous problems with recent studies highlighting their involvement in various aspects of our lives. Upcycling of plastics, the conversion of plastic waste to high-added value chemicals, is a way to combat plastic waste that is receiving increased attention. Herein, we describe a novel aerobic photochemical process for the upcycling of real-life polystyrene-based plastics into benzoic acid. A new process employing a thioxanthone-derivative, in combination with N-bromosuccinimide, under ambient air and 390 nm irradiation is capable of upcycling real-life polystyrene-derived products in benzoic acid in yields varying from 24-54 %.

Photochemical Aerobic Upcycling of Polystyrene Plastics via Synergistic Indirect HAT Catalysis

Plastic pollution constitutes an evergrowing urgent environmental problem, since overaccumulation of plastic waste, arising from the immense increase of the production of disposable plastic products, overcame planet's capacity to properly handle them. Chemical upcycling of polystyrene constitutes a convenient method for the conversion of plastic waste into high-added value chemicals, suggesting an attractive perspective in dealing with the environmental crisis. We demonstrate herein a novel, easy-to-perform organocatalytic photoinduced aerobic protocol, which proceeds via synergistic indirect hydrogen atom transfer (HAT) catalysis under LED 390 nm Kessil lamps as the irradiation source. The developed method employs a BrCH2CN-thioxanthone photocatalytic system and was successfully applied to a variety of everyday-life plastic products, leading to the isolation of benzoic acid after simple base-acid work up in yields varying from 23-49 %, while a large-scale experiment was successfully performed, suggesting that the photocatalytic step is susceptible to industrial application.

Visible-Light-Mediated [2+2] Photocycloadditions of Alkynes

Visible-light-mediated [2+2] photocycloaddition reaction can be considered an ideal solution due to its green and sustainable properties, and is one of the most efficient methods to synthesize four-membered ring motifs. Although research on the [2+2] photocycloaddition of alkynes is challenging because of the diminished reactivity of alkynes, and the more significant ring strain of the products, remarkable achievements have been made in this field. In this article, we highlight the recent advances in visible-light-mediated [2+2] photocycloaddition reactions of alkynes, with focus on the reaction mechanism and the late-stage synthetic applications. Advances in obtaining cyclobutenes, azetines, and oxetene active intermediates continue to be breakthroughs in this fascinating field of research.

Visible light-mediated aza Paternò-Büchi reaction of acyclic oximes and alkenes to azetidines

The aza Paternò-Büchi reaction is a [2+2]-cycloaddition reaction between imines and alkenes that produces azetidines, four-membered nitrogen-containing heterocycles. Currently, successful examples rely primarily on either intramolecular variants or cyclic imine equivalents. To unlock the full synthetic potential of aza Paternò-Büchi reactions, it is essential to extend the reaction to acyclic imine equivalents. Here, we report that matching of the frontier molecular orbital energies of alkenes with those of acyclic oximes enables visible light-mediated aza Paternò-Büchi reactions through triplet energy transfer catalysis. The utility of this reaction is further showcased in the synthesis of epi-penaresidin B. Density functional theory computations reveal that a competition between the desired [2+2]-cycloaddition and alkene dimerization determines the success of the reaction. Frontier orbital energy matching between the reactive components lowers transition-state energy (ΔGǂ) values and ultimately promotes reactivity.

Photochemical [2+2] Cycloaddition of Alkynyl Boronates

A photochemical [2+2] cycloaddition of alkynyl boronates and maleimides is reported. The developed protocol provided 35-70 % yield of maleimide-derived cyclobutenyl boronates and demonstrated wide compatibility with various functional groups. The synthetic utility of the prepared building blocks was demonstrated for a range of transformations, including Suzuki cross-coupling, catalytic or metal-hydride reduction, oxidation, and cycloaddition reactions. With aryl-substituted alkynyl boronates, the products of double [2+2] cycloaddition were obtained predominantly. Using the developed protocol, a cyclobutene-derived analogue of Thalidomide was prepared in one step. Mechanistic studies supported the participation of the triplet-excited state maleimides and ground state alkynyl boronates in the key step of the process.

Photochemical Aminochlorination of Alkenes without the Use of an External Catalyst

The niche field of photochemistry offers opportunities that are not found in "traditional" ground state chemical pathways. Aminochlorinated derivatives are an interesting family of 1,2-difunctionalised compounds that provide access to a variety of natural products and pharmaceutical active substances. A practical, catalyst-free chloroamination protocol is described herein, providing access to intermediates of great importance, utilising mild and photochemical reaction conditions (370 nm), where N-chlorosulfonamides are used as both nitrogen and chlorine sources. A wide variety of olefins, decorated with a plethora of functional groups, was tested providing excellent results (28 examples, 18-88 % yield). Mechanistic studies (UV-Vis, control experiments and quantum yield measurement) were also performed.

Olefin Dihydroxylation Using Nitroarenes as Photoresponsive Oxidants

Vicinal diols are abundant among natural and synthetic molecules, and also represent valuable intermediates throughout organic synthesis. Olefin dihydroxylation is an effective strategy to access these derivatives owing to the broad range and availability of alkene feedstocks. OsO₄ is among the most used reagents to achieve this transformation, yet its high toxicity and cost remain concerning. Herein, we present a mechanistically distinct strategy for olefin dihydroxylation using nitroarenes as photoresponsive oxidants. Upon purple LEDs irradiation, these species undergo a [3+2]-photocycloaddition with a wide range of olefins to give stable 1,3,2-dioxazolidine intermediates. These species can be accumulated in solution and then reduced in situ to the desired diols, utilising readily accessible and easy to handle solid reagents as H₂ surrogates.

Light-accelerated "on-water" hydroacylation of dialkyl azodicarboxylates

The hydroacylation of dialkyl azodicarboxylates has received a lot of attention lately due to the great importance of acyl hydrazides in organic chemistry. Herein, we report an inexpensive and green photochemical approach, where light irradiation (390 nm) significantly accelerates the reaction between dialkyl azodicarboxylates and aldehydes, while water is employed as the solvent. A variety of aromatic and aliphatic aldehydes were converted into their corresponding acyl hydrazides in good to excellent yields in really short reaction times (15-210 min) and the reaction mechanism was also studied. Applications of this reaction in the syntheses of Vorinostat and Moclobemide were demonstrated.

Photochemical [2 + 2] Cycloaddition of Alkenes with Maleimides: Highlighting the Differences between N-Alkyl vs N-Aryl Maleimides

Throughout the last 15 years, there has been increased research interest in the use of light promoting organic transformations. [2 + 2] Cycloadditions are usually performed photochemically; however, literature precedent on the reaction between olefins and maleimides is limited to a handful of literature examples, focusing mainly on N-aliphatic maleimides or using metal catalysts for visible-light driven reactions of N-aromatic maleimides. Herein, we identify the differences in reactivity between N-alkyl and N-aryl maleimides. For our optimized protocols, in the case of N-alkyl maleimides, the reaction with alkenes proceeds under 370 nm irradiation in the absence of an external photocatalyst, leading to products in high yields. In the case of N-aryl maleimides, the reaction with olefins requires thioxanthone as the photosensitizer under 440 nm irradiation.

Stereospecific Formation of the rctt Isomer of Bis-crown-Containing Cyclobutane upon [2 + 2] Photocycloaddition of an (18-Crown-6)stilbene Induced by Self-Assembly via Hydrogen Bonding

The formation and the spectroscopic and structural properties of 1:1 and 2:1 (ligand-to-dication) complexes of an (18-crown-6)stilbene with ethane-1,2-diammonium diperchlorate in MeCN were studied by UV-vis and NMR spectroscopy and by density functional theory calculations. Prolonged UV irradiation of 2:1 mixtures of the crown stilbene and the diammonium salt led to the formation of two main photoproducts, namely, the single syn-"head-to-head" photodimer of the crown stilbene (rctt cyclobutane) due to supramolecular-assisted [2 + 2] photocycloaddition and a crown ether derivative of phenanthrene due to a photoinduced electrocyclization reaction. The rctt cyclobutane was isolated by preparative photolysis, followed by chromatography. The selectivity of the [2 + 2] photocycloaddition is explained by supramolecular pre-organization of crown stilbene molecules into the 2:1 complexes that have a pseudo-sandwich structure with stacking interactions between the stilbene moieties.

A sustainable photochemical aerobic sulfide oxidation: access to sulforaphane and modafinil

Sulfoxide-containing molecules are an important class of compounds in the pharmaceutical industry and many efforts have been made to develop new and green protocols, targeting the chemoselective transformation of sulfides into sulfoxides. Photochemistry is a rapidly expanding research field employing light as the energy source. Photochemical aerobic processes possess additional advantages to photochemistry and may find applications in the chemical industries. Herein, a 370 nm catalyst-free aerobic protocol was developed, using 2-Me-THF as the green solvent. At the same time, two low-catalyst-loading anthraquinone-based processes (under a CFL lamp or 427 nm irradiation) in 2-Me-THF were developed. Furthermore, a broad range of substrates was tested. We also implemented our protocols towards the synthesis of the pharmaceutical active ingredients (APIs) sulforaphane and modafinil.

Functionalisation of ethereal-based saturated heterocycles with concomitant aerobic C–H activation and C–C bond formation

Herein we disclose a novel method for the aerobic C–H activation of ethereal-based heterocycles to generate various α-functionalised building blocks.