Analytical techniques for the determination of tryptamines and β-carbolines in plant matrices and in psychoactive beverages consumed during religious ceremonies and neo-shamanic urban practices

Beyond the Psychoactive Effects of Ayahuasca: Cultural and Pharmacological Relevance of Its Emetic and Purging Properties

The herbal preparation ayahuasca has been an important part of ritual and healing practices, deployed to access invisible worlds in several indigenous groups in the Amazon basin and among mestizo populations of South America. The preparation is usually known to be composed of two main plants, Banisteriopsis caapi and Psychotria viridis, which produce both hallucinogenic and potent purging and emetic effects; currently, these are considered its major pharmacological activities. In recent decades, the psychoactive and visionary effect of ayahuasca has been highly sought after by the shamanic tourism community, which led to the popularization of ayahuasca use globally and to a cultural distancing from its traditional cosmological meanings, including that of purging and emesis. Further, the field of ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology has also produced relatively limited data linking the phytochemical diversity of ayahuasca with the different degrees of its purging and emetic versus psychoactive effects. Similarly, scientific interest has also principally addressed the psychological and mental health effects of ayahuasca, overlooking the cultural and pharmacological importance of the purging and emetic activity. The aim of this review is therefore to shed light on the understudied purging and emetic effect of ayahuasca herbal preparation. It firstly focuses on reviewing the cultural relevance of emesis and purging in the context of Amazonian traditions. Secondly, on the basis of the main known phytochemicals described in the ayahuasca formula, a comprehensive pharmacological evaluation of their emetic and purging properties is presented.

Immunological Modulation and Control of Parasitaemia by Ayahuasca Compounds: Therapeutic Potential for Chagas's Disease

Ayahuasca is a psychoactive and psychedelic decoct composed mainly of Banisteriopsis caapi and Psychotria viridis plant species. The beverage is rich in alkaloids and it is ritualistically used by several indigenous communities of South America as a natural medicine. There are also reports in the literature indicating the prophylaxis potential of Ayahuasca alkaloids against internal parasites. In the present study, Ayahuasca exhibited moderate in vitro activity against Trypanosoma cruzi trypomastigotes (IC₅₀ 95.78 μg/mL) compared to the reference drug benznidazole (IC₅₀ 2.03 μg/mL). The β-carboline alkaloid harmine (HRE), isolated from B. caapi, was considered active against the trypomastigotes forms (IC₅₀ 6.37), and the tryptamine N, N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), isolated from P. viridis was also moderately active with IC₅₀ of 21.02 μg/mL. Regarding the in vivo evaluations, no collateral effects were observed. The HRE alone demonstrated the highest trypanocidal activity in a dose-responsive manner (10 and 100 mg/kg). The Ayahuasca and the association between HRE and DMT worsened the parasitaemia, suggesting a modulation of the immunological response during the T. cruzi infection, especially by increasing total Immunoglobulin (IgG) and IgG1 antibody levels. The in silico molecular docking revealed HRE binding with low energy at two sites of the Trypanothione reductase enzyme (TR), which are absent in humans, and thus considered a promissory target for drug discovery. In conclusion, Ayahuasca compounds seem to not be toxic at the concentrations of the in vivo evaluations and can promote trypanocidal effect in multi targets, including control of parasitaemia, immunological modulation and TR enzymatic inhibition, which might benefit the treatments of patients with Chagas' disease. Moreover, the present study also provides scientific information to support the prophylactic potential of Ayahuasca against internal parasites.

β-carboline-independent antidepressant-like effect of the standardized extract of the barks of Mimosa tenuiflora (Willd) Poir. occurs via 5-HT2A/2C receptors in mice

BACKGROUND

Depression is a psychiatric disorder with limited therapy options. Psychedelics are new antidepressant candidates, being the ayahuasca one of the most promising ones. A synergistic combination of N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) and β-carbolines allows ayahuasca antidepressant properties. Another psychedelic and DMT-containing beverage is the jurema wine used religiously by indigenous people from Northeastern Brazil.

AIMS

To evaluate the antidepressant-like effect of standardized extract of Mimosa tenuiflora (SEMT), associated or not with harmine (β-carboline), in behavioral models of depression.

METHODS

The SEMT was submitted to (+) ESI-IT-LC/MS analysis for DMT quantification. To assess the antidepressant-like effect of SEMT, the open field (OFT), tail suspension (TST), and forced swim (FST) tests were performed. To verify the participation of serotonergic systems, the 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP)-induced head twitch test was performed.

RESULTS

The content of DMT found in SEMT was 24.74 ± 0.8 mg/g. Yuremamine was also identified. SEMT presented an antidepressant-like effect in mice submitted to the TST and FST, independent from harmine, with no significant alterations on the OFT. The sub-dose interaction between SEMT and ketamine also produced an anti-immobility effect in the TST, with no changes in the OFT. SEMT potentiated the head twitch behavior induced by 5-HTP and ketanserin prevented its antidepressant-like effect in the TST (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

SEMT presented a harmine-independent antidepressant-like effect in mice submitted to the TST and FST. This effect occurs possibly via activation of serotonergic systems, particularly the 5-HT_2A/2C receptors.

Metabolomics and integrated network analysis reveal roles of endocannabinoids and large neutral amino acid balance in the ayahuasca experience

There has been a renewed interest in the potential use of psychedelics for the treatment of psychiatric conditions. Nevertheless, little is known about the mechanism of action and molecular pathways influenced by ayahuasca use in humans. Therefore, for the first time, our study aims to investigate the human metabolomics signature after consumption of a psychedelic, ayahuasca, and its connection with both the psychedelic-induced subjective effects and the plasma concentrations of ayahuasca alkaloids. Plasma samples of 23 individuals were collected both before and after ayahuasca consumption. Samples were analysed through targeted metabolomics and further integrated with subjective ratings of the ayahuasca experience (i.e., using the 5-Dimension Altered States of Consciousness Rating Scale [ASC]), and plasma ayahuasca-alkaloids using integrated network analysis. Metabolic pathways enrichment analysis using diffusion algorithms for specific KEGG modules was performed on the metabolic output. Compared to baseline, the consumption of ayahuasca increased N-acyl-ethanolamine endocannabinoids, decreased 2-acyl-glycerol endocannabinoids, and altered several large-neutral amino acids (LNAAs). Integrated network results indicated that most of the LNAAs were inversely associated with 9 out of the 11 subscales of the ASC, except for tryptophan which was positively associated. Several endocannabinoids and hexosylceramides were directly associated with the ayahuasca alkaloids. Enrichment analysis confirmed dysregulation in several pathways involved in neurotransmission such as serotonin and dopamine synthesis. In conclusion, a crosstalk between the circulating LNAAs and the subjective effects is suggested, which is independent of the alkaloid concentrations and provides insights into the specific metabolic fingerprint and mechanism of action underlying ayahuasca experiences.

New Insights into the Chemical Composition of Ayahuasca

Ayahuasca is a psychedelic beverage originally from the Amazon rainforest used in different shamanic settings for medicinal, spiritual, and cultural purposes. It is prepared by boiling in water an admixture of the Amazonian vine Banisteriopsis caapi, which is a source of β-carboline alkaloids, with plants containing N,N-dimethyltryptamine, usually Psychotria viridis. While previous studies have focused on the detection and quantification of the alkaloids present in the drink, less attention has been given to other nonalkaloid components or the composition of the solids suspended in the beverage, which may also affect its psychoactive properties. In this study, we used nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry/mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) to study the composition of ayahuasca samples, to determine their alkaloid qualitative and quantitative profiles, as well as other major soluble and nonsoluble components. For the first time, fructose was detected as a major component of the samples, while harmine (a β-carboline previously described as an abundant alkaloid in ayahuasca) was found to be present in the solids suspended in the beverage. In addition, N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), harmine, tetrahydroharmine, harmaline, and harmol were identified as the major alkaloids present in extracts of all samples. Finally, a novel, easy, and fast method using quantitative NMR was developed and validated to simultaneously quantify the content of these alkaloids found in each ayahuasca sample.

Total Synthesis of 6-Hydroxymetatacarboline-d Discovered from Mycena metata via the Pictet-Spengler Reaction Followed by the Horner-Wadsworth-Emmons Reaction

Total synthesis of a new β-carboline alkaloid, 6-hydroxymetatacarboline-d, which was isolated from fruiting bodies of Mycena metata was accomplished in 14 steps. The synthetic strategy features the Pictet-Spengler reaction to construct the tricyclic core followed by amide coupling and the Horner-Wadsworth-Emmons reaction.

Toxicokinetics and Toxicodynamics of Ayahuasca Alkaloids N,N-Dimethyltryptamine (DMT), Harmine, Harmaline and Tetrahydroharmine: Clinical and Forensic Impact

Ayahuasca is a hallucinogenic botanical beverage originally used by indigenous Amazonian tribes in religious ceremonies and therapeutic practices. While ethnobotanical surveys still indicate its spiritual and medicinal uses, consumption of ayahuasca has been progressively related with a recreational purpose, particularly in Western societies. The ayahuasca aqueous concoction is typically prepared from the leaves of the N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT)-containing Psychotria viridis, and the stem and bark of Banisteriopsis caapi, the plant source of harmala alkaloids. Herein, the toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics of the psychoactive DMT and harmala alkaloids harmine, harmaline and tetrahydroharmine, are comprehensively covered, particularly emphasizing the psychological, physiological, and toxic effects deriving from their concomitant intake. Potential therapeutic utility, particularly in mental and psychiatric disorders, and forensic aspects of DMT and ayahuasca are also reviewed and discussed. Following administration of ayahuasca, DMT is rapidly absorbed and distributed. Harmala alkaloids act as potent inhibitors of monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A), preventing extensive first-pass degradation of DMT into 3-indole-acetic acid (3-IAA), and enabling sufficient amounts of DMT to reach the brain. DMT has affinity for a variety of serotonergic and non-serotonergic receptors, though its psychotropic effects are mainly related with the activation of serotonin receptors type 2A (5-HT_2A). Mildly to rarely severe psychedelic adverse effects are reported for ayahuasca or its alkaloids individually, but abuse does not lead to dependence or tolerance. For a long time, the evidence has pointed to potential psychotherapeutic benefits in the treatment of depression, anxiety, and substance abuse disorders; and although misuse of ayahuasca has been diverting attention away from such clinical potential, research onto its therapeutic effects has now strongly resurged.

Chemical Composition of Traditional and Analog Ayahuasca

Traditional ayahuasca can be defined as a brew made from Amazonian vine Banisteriopsis caapi and Amazonian admixture plants. Ayahuasca is used by indigenous groups in Amazonia, as a sacrament in syncretic Brazilian religions, and in healing and spiritual ceremonies internationally. The study aimed to determine concentrations of the main bio- and psychoactive components of ayahuasca used in different locations and traditions. We collected 102 samples of brews from ayahuasca-using communities. Concentrations of N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), tetrahydroharmine, harmine, and harmaline were determined by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS). Qualitative analyses for non-traditional additives (moclobemide, psilocin, yuremamine) were performed by high resolution mass spectrometry. Higher and more variable concentrations of DMT in neoshamanic ayahuasca samples compared to indigenous samples may indicate use of higher and more variable proportions of DMT-containing admixture plants. From European samples, we found two related samples of analog ayahuasca containing moclobemide, psilocin, DMT, yuremamine, and very low concentrations of B. caapi alkaloids. Some analogs of ayahuasca (Peganum harmala, Mimosa tenuiflora) were used in Europe. No analogs were found from Brazil or Santo Daime ceremonies in Europe. We recommend awareness about the constituents of the brew and ethical self-regulation among practitioners of ayahuasca ceremonies.

Neuroprotective potential of Ayahuasca and untargeted metabolomics analyses: applicability to Parkinson's disease

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY RELEVANCE

Ayahuasca is a tea produced through decoction of Amazonian plants. It has been used for centuries by indigenous people of South America. The beverage is considered to be an ethnomedicine, and it is traditionally used for the treatment of a wide range of diseases, including neurological illness. Besides, some scientific evidence suggests it may be applicable to Parkinson's disease (PD) treatment. Thus, Ayahuasca deserves in depth studies to clarify its potential role in this disease.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aimed to use an untargeted metabolomics approach to evaluate the neuroprotective potential of the Ayahuasca beverage, the extracts from its matrix plants (Banisteriopsis caapi and Psychotria viridis), its fractions and its main alkaloids on the viability of SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells in an in vitro PD model.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The cytotoxicity of Ayahuasca, crude extracts, and fractions of B. caapi and P. viridis, as well as neuroprotection promoted by these samples in a 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-induced neurodegeneration model, were evaluated by the MTT assay at two time-points: 48 h (T1) and 72 h (T2). The main alkaloids from Ayahuasca matrix plants, harmine (HRE) and N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), were also isolated and evaluated. An untargeted metabolomics approach was developed to explore the chemical composition of samples with neuroprotective activity. Ultra-Performance Liquid Chromatography coupled to Electrospray Ionisation and Time-of-Flight (UPLC-ESI-TOF) metabolome data was treated and further analysed using multivariate statistical analyses (MSA): principal component analysis (PCA) and orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA). The metabolites were dereplicated using the Dictionary of Natural Products and an in house database. The main alkaloids were also quantified by UPLC-MS/MS.

RESULTS

The samples did not cause cytotoxicity in vitro and three of samples intensely increased cell viability at T1. The crude extracts, alkaloid fractions and HRE demonstrated remarkable neuroprotective effect at T2 while the hydroalcoholic fractions demonstrated this neuroprotective effect at T1 and T2. Several compounds from different classes, such as β-carbolines and monoterpene indole alkaloids (MIAs) were revealed correlated with this property by MSA. Additionally, a total of 2419 compounds were detected in both ionisation modes. HRE showed potent neuroprotective action at 72 h, but it was not among the metabolites positively correlated with the most efficacious neuroprotective profile at either time (T1 and T2). Furthermore, DMT was statistically important to differentiate the dataset (VIP value > 1), although it did not exhibit sufficient neuroprotective activity by in vitro assay, neither a positive correlation with T1 and T2 neuroprotective profile, which corroborated the MSA results.

CONCLUSION

The lower doses of the active samples stimulated neuronal cell proliferation and/or displayed the most efficacious neuroprotection profile, namely by preventing neuronal damage and improving cell viability against 6-OHDA-induced toxicity. Intriguingly, the hydroalcoholic fractions exhibited enhanced neuroprotective effects when compared to other samples and isolated alkaloids. This finding corroborates the significance of a holistic approach. The results demonstrate that Ayahuasca and its base plants have potential applicability for PD treatment and to prevent its progression differently from current drugs to treat PD.

Biomedical analysis of New Psychoactive Substances (NPS) of natural origin

New psychoactive substances (NPS) can be divided into two main groups: synthetic molecules and active principles of natural origin. With respect to this latter group, a wide range of alkaloids contained in plants, mainly from Asia and South America, can be included in the class of NPS of natural origin. The majority NPS of natural origin presents stimulant and/or hallucinogenic effects (e.g. Catha edulis and Ayahuasca, respectively) while few of them show sedative and relaxing properties (e.g. kratom). Few information is available in relation to the analytical identification of psychoactive principles contained in the plant material. Moreover, to our knowledge, scarce data are present in literature, about the characterization and quantification of the parent drug in biological matrices from intoxication and fatality cases. In addition, the metabolism of natural active principles has not been yet fully investigated for most of the psychoactive substances from plant material. Consequently, their identification is not frequently performed and produced metabolites are often unknown. To fill this gap, we reviewed the currently available analytical methodologies for the identification and quantification of NPS of natural origin in plant material and, whenever possible, in conventional and non-conventional biological matrices of intoxicated and dead subjects. The psychoactive principles contained in the following plants were investigated: Areca catechu, Argyreia nervosa, Ayahuasca, Catha edulis, Ipomoea violacea, Mandragora officinarum, Mitragyna speciosa, Pausinystalia yohimbe, Piper methisticum, Psilocybe, Rivea corymbosa, Salvia divinorum, Sceletium tortuosum, Lactuca virosa. From the results obtained, it can be evidenced that although several analytical methods for the simultaneous quantification of different molecules from the same plants have been developed and validated, a comprehensive method to detect active compounds from different natural specimens both in biological and non-biological matrices is still lacking.

Ayahuasca: Psychological and Physiologic Effects, Pharmacology and Potential Uses in Addiction and Mental Illness

Background:

Ayahuasca, a traditional Amazonian decoction with psychoactive properties, is made from bark of the Banisteriopsis caapi vine (containing beta-carboline alkaloids) and leaves of the Psychotria viridis bush (supplying the hallucinogen N,N-dimethyltryptamine, DMT). Originally used by indigenous shamans for the purposes of spirit communi-cation, magical experiences, healing, and religious rituals across several South American countries, ayahuasca has been in-corporated into folk medicine and spiritual healing, and several Brazilian churches use it routinely to foster a spiritual experi-ence. More recently, it is being used in Europe and North America, not only for religious or healing reasons, but also for rec-reation.

Objective:

To review ayahuasca’s behavioral effects, possible adverse effects, proposed mechanisms of action and potential clinical uses in mental illness.

Method:

We searched Medline, in English, using the terms ayahuasca, dimethyltryptamine, Banisteriopsis caapi, and Psy-chotria viridis and reviewed the relevant publications.

Results:

The following aspects of ayahuasca are summarized: Political and legal factors; acute and chronic psychological ef-fects; electrophysiological studies and imaging; physiological effects; safety and adverse effects; pharmacology; potential psychiatric uses.

Conclusion:

Many years of shamanic wisdom have indicated potential therapeutic uses for ayahuasca, and several present day studies suggest that it may be useful for treating various psychiatric disorders and addictions. The side effect profile ap-pears to be relatively mild, but more detailed studies need to be done. Several prominent researchers believe that government regulations with regard to ayahuasca should be relaxed so that it could be provided more readily to recognized, credible re-searchers to conduct comprehensive clinical trials.

Psychological and neuropsychological assessment of regular hoasca users

BACKGROUND

Hoasca (also called ayahuasca) is a N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) - containing psychedelic brew originally used for magico-religious purposes by Amerindian populations of the Amazon Basin. Recently, Brazilian syncretic churches have helped spread the ritual use of hoasca to Western societies. The aim of this study was to evaluate substance use, and neuropsychological and psychological functioning of regular hoasca users within a religious setting.

METHODS

Assessment of socio-economic status, mood, personality traits, impulsiveness, drug use, quality of life, extrinsic and intrinsic religiosity, and neuropsychological function was performed on 30 volunteers from a U.S. branch of União do Vegetal (UDV), a Brazilian religion which uses hoasca ritually. We also assessed 27 non-hoasca-using control subjects matched by socio-demographic profile and church attendance. Mann-Whitney U, chi-squared and Fisher tests were used to analyze differences between groups. Spearman's association and simple logistic regression tests were used to analyze the impact of frequency of hoasca use on dependent variables.

RESULTS

Relative to the control group, the UDV group demonstrated lower scores for depression (p=0.043, r=.27) and confusion (p=0.032, r=.29) as assessed by the Profile of Mood States (POMS); higher scores on the instrument Big Five Inventory (BFI) for the personality traits agreeableness (p=0.028, r=.29) and openness (p=0.037, r=.28); higher scores on the quality life domain role limitations due to physical health as determined by the instrument Medical Outcomes Study Short Form-36 - SF-36 (p=0.035, r=.28); less recent use of alcohol (p<0.001, φ_c=.57), greater past use of alcohol to intoxication (p=0.007, φ_c=.36) and past use of cannabis (p=0.001, φ_c=.45) as measured by the Addiction Severity Index (ASI), 5th edition; better score on a measure of memory vulnerability to proactive interference as measured by the California Verbal Learning Test - CVLT (p=0.040, r=.27). Lifetime use of hoasca was positively correlated with role limitations due to physical health (p=0.032, r_s=.39) and negatively associated with lifetime heavy alcohol use (p=0.034, OR=0.979).

CONCLUSIONS

The findings indicate that religious use of hoasca does not adversely affect neuropsychological functioning and may have positive effects on substance abuse and mood.

Application of ambient ionization high resolution mass spectrometry to determination of the botanical provenance of the constituents of psychoactive drug mixtures

A continuing challenge in analytical chemistry is species-level determination of the constituents of mixtures that are made of a combination of plant species. There is an added urgency to identify components in botanical mixtures that have mind altering properties, due to the increasing global abuse of combinations of such plants. Here we demonstrate the proof of principle that ambient ionization mass spectrometry, namely direct analysis in real time-high resolution mass spectrometry (DART-HRMS), and statistical analysis tools can be used to rapidly determine the individual components within a psychoactive brew (Ayahuasca) made from a mixture of botanicals. Five plant species used in Ayahuasca preparations were subjected to DART-HRMS analysis. The chemical fingerprint of each was reproducible but unique, thus enabling discrimination between them. The presence of important biomarkers, including N,N-dimethyltryptamine, harmaline and harmine, was confirmed using in-source collision-induced dissociation (CID). Six Ayahuasca brews made from combinations of various plant species were shown to possess a high level of similarity, despite having been made from different constituents. Nevertheless, the application of principal component analysis (PCA) was useful in distinguishing between each of the brews based on the botanical species used in the preparations. From a training set based on 900 individual analyses, three principal components covered 86.38% of the variance, and the leave-one-out cross validation was 98.88%. This is the first report of ambient ionization MS being successfully used for determination of the individual components of plant mixtures.

Biosensor based on inhibition of monoamine oxidases A and B for detection of β-carbolines

β-Carbolines are inhibitors of monoamine oxidases (MAO-A and MAO-B) and can be found in foods, hallucinogenic plant or various drugs. We have developed a fast analysis method for β-carbolines based on the inhibition of MAO. The enzymes were immobilized on screen-printed electrodes modified with a stabilized film of Prussian blue that contain also copper. We have used benzylamine as substrate for the enzymatic reaction and the hydrogen peroxide was measured amperometrically at -50 mV. The detection limits obtained were 5.0 µM for harmane and 2.5 µM for both harmaline and norharmane. The MAO-A is inhibited by all three tested β-carbolines (harmane, norharmane, and harmaline) while MAO-B is inhibited only by norharmane. The presence of norharmane in mixtures of β-carbolines can be identified based on the difference between the cumulative inhibition of MAO-A by all β-carbolines and MAO-B inhibition. The developed biosensors were used for food analysis.

Determination of N,N-dimethyltryptamine in beverages consumed in religious practices by headspace solid-phase microextraction followed by gas chromatography ion trap mass spectrometry

A novel analytical approach combining solid-phase microextraction (SPME)/gas chromatography ion trap mass spectrometry (GC-IT-MS) was developed for the detection and quantification N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), a powerful psychoactive indole alkaloid present in a variety of South American indigenous beverages, such as ayahuasca and vinho da jurema. These particular plant products, often used within a religious context, are increasingly consumed throughout the world following an expansion of religious groups and the availability of plant material over the Internet and high street shops. The method described in the present study included the use of SPME in headspace mode combined GC-IT-MS and included the optimization of the SPME procedure using multivariate techniques. The method was performed with a polydimethylsiloxane/divinylbenzene (PDMS/DVB) fiber in headspace mode (70 min at 60 °C) which resulted in good precision (RSD<8.6%) and accuracy values (71-109%). Detection and quantification limits obtained for DMT were 0.78 and 9.5 mg L(-1), respectively and good linearity (1.56-300 mg L(-1), r(2)=0.9975) was also observed. In addition, the proposed method showed good robustness and allowed for the minimization of sample manipulation. Five jurema beverage samples were prepared in the laboratory in order to study the impact of temperature, pH and ethanol on the ability to extract DMT into solution. The developed method was then applied to the analysis of twelve real ayahuasca and vinho da jurema samples, obtained from Brazilian religious groups, which revealed DMT concentration levels between 0.10 and 1.81 g L(-1).