Bioactive scaffolds for tissue engineering: A review of decellularized extracellular matrix applications and innovations

Matrix-bound nanovesicles recapitulate tissue-specific angiogenic properties of parent extracellular matrix with distinct miRNA profiles

Decellularized extracellular matrix (dECM) exhibits tissue-specific pro- or anti-angiogenic effects. Previous studies have demonstrated that matrix-bound nanovesicles (MBVs) act as key bioactive components of dECM, replicating various biological functions such as anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects. Building on this evidence, this study hypothesized that MBVs derived from cartilage and small intestinal submucosa (SIS) modulate angiogenesis through the selective packaging of miRNAs. Cartilage-derived MBVs (cMBVs) and SIS-derived MBVs (sMBVs) were isolated, characterized, and analyzed for their miRNA profiles using RNA sequencing and RT-qPCR validation. The interactions between MBVs and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) were assessed by examining proliferation, adhesion, migration, and tube formation in comparison to the parent ECM. Angiogenic modulation was further evaluated using a mouse Matrigel plug assay and a rabbit corneal neovascularization (NV) model. Our results demonstrated that anti-angiogenic miRNAs (e.g., miR-140-3p, miR-455-5p, and miR-148a-5p) were predominant in cMBVs, suppressing endothelial cell activity and angiogenesis, while pro-angiogenic miRNAs (e.g., miR-143-3p, miR-181a, and miR-21-5p) were prevalent in sMBVs, enhancing vessel formation. In vivo, cMBVs significantly inhibited vascular invasion and neovessel formation, whereas sMBVs promoted angiogenesis in both models. These findings confirm that MBVs reflect the tissue-specific angiogenic regulatory functions of their parent ECM, and highlight their potential as therapeutic tools for targeted modulation of angiogenesis in regenerative medicine and tissue engineering.

Advances in abiotic tissue-based biomaterials: A focus on decellularization and devitalization techniques

This Review explores the growing and diversifying field of tissue-derived abiotic constructs for tissue engineering applications, with main focus on decellularization and devitalization techniques and principles. Acellular fractions derived from biological tissues, such as the extracellular matrix (ECM), have long been considered a valuable approach for the generation of numerous scaffolds and more complex constructs. The removal of the cellular content has been considered essential to prevent the development of adverse immunological reactions. Nevertheless, the discovery of promising features of certain cellular components has sparked interest in the use of inactivated or devitalized cellular fractions for several applications, particularly in regenerative medicine and inflammation control. Devitalization has been described for several clinical applications, but remains poorly explored in terms of in vitro constructs compared to decellularization methods currently available. In this review, we present and critically evaluate a spectrum of approaches for the decellularization of whole-organs and in vitro constructs, and the most prevalent devitalization techniques, with a discussion on their implications on scaffolds composition, structure, and potentially therapeutic properties. Processing methodologies to achieve optimal cell-based abiotic materials and approaches for their effective characterization are described and discussed. The application of these materials in healthcare, with most focus on regenerative approaches and including examples of commercially available products, is also addressed.

Ex vivo functional whole organ in biomedical research: a review

Model systems are critical in biomedical and preclinical research. Animal and in vitro models serve an important role in our current understanding of human physiology, disease pathophysiology, and therapy development. However, if the system is between cell culture and animal models, it may be able to overcome the knowledge gap that exists in the current system. Studies employing ex vivo organs as models have not been thoroughly investigated. Though the integration of other organs and systems has an impact on many biological mechanisms and disorders, it can add a new dimension to modeling and aid in the identification of new possible therapeutic targets. Here, we have discussed why the ex vivo organ model is desirable and the importance of the inclusion of organs from diverse species, described its historical aspects, studied organs as models in scientific research, and its ex vivo stability. We also discussed, how an ex vivo organ model might help researchers better understand organ physiology, as well as organ-specific diseases and therapeutic targets. We emphasized how this ex vivo organ dynamics will be more competent than existing models, as well as what tissues or organs would have potentially viable longevity for ex vivo modeling including human tissues, organs, and/or at least biopsies and its possible advantage in clinical medicine including organ transplantation procedure and precision medicine.

Generation of Neural Organoids and Their Application in Disease Modeling and Regenerative Medicine

The complexity and precision of the human nervous system have posed significant challenges for researchers seeking suitable models to elucidate refractory neural disorders. Traditional approaches, including monolayer cell cultures and animal models, often fail to replicate the intricacies of human neural tissue. The advent of organoid technology derived from stem cells has addressed many of these limitations, providing highly representative platforms for studying the structure and function of the human embryonic brain and spinal cord. Researchers have induced neural organoids with regional characteristics by mimicking morphogen gradients in neural development. Recent advancements have demonstrated the utility of neural organoids in disease modeling, offering insights into the pathophysiology of various neural disorders, as well as in the field of neural regeneration. Developmental defects in neural organoids due to the lack of microglia or vascular systems are addressed. In addition to induction methods, microfluidics is used to simulate the dynamic physiological environment; bio-manufacturing technologies are employed to regulate physical signaling and shape the structure of complex organs. These technologies further expand the construction strategies and application scope of neural organoids. With the emergence of new material paradigms and advances in AI, new possibilities in the realm of neural organoids are witnessed.

Development-Inspired Biomimetic Cell-Niche Coaggregates Safeguard Tooth Stem Cell-Based Functional Tissue Regeneration

Harnessing natural developmental programs to repair and replace damaged organs represents promising approaches in regenerative medicine. However, effective strategies are still lacking for tissue regeneration in complicated conditions, such as the periodontal bone defect. Here, human dental follicle stem cells (hDFSCs) and their aggregates (hDFSCA) are cultured and characterized, which are formed based on the inherent property of these stem cells self-assembly into compact spheroid-like structures, mimicking mesenchymal condensation in development. A periodontal tissue-specific microenvironment simulation material is then established, human decellularized alveolar bone matrix particles (hDABMPs), which possess favorable physicochemical and biological properties for regenerative use. hDFSCs co-cultured with hDABMPs exhibit improved cell function, and hDFSCA-hDABMP co-aggregates are subsequently constructed, which activate the developmental gene expression in hDFSCA and initiate hypoxic adaptation mechanisms for tissue regeneration. Indeed, hDFSCA-hDABMP co-aggregates significantly promote regeneration after implantation in alveolar bone defects with good biosafety. Interestingly, during the early stages of implantation, hDABMPs enhance hDFSC survival and expansion, thereby providing a sufficient source of cells for tissue regeneration. Collectively, this study reveals a development-inspired, engineered cell-niche co-aggregation strategy for enhancing CA therapeutic potential by simulating tissue-specific microenvironments, offering novel insights for functional tissue regeneration.

Nanomaterial interventions for wound healing: Current status of preclinical and clinical studies

Wound healing is a complex, highly coordinated process involving a series of molecular and cellular phases-haemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodelling. These phases are regulated by growth factors such as cytokines and chemokines, coordinating the actions of fibroblasts, keratinocytes, progenitor, and endothelial cells. Disruptions in this process can lead to chronic wounds, an escalating global health issue. Despite advancements, current wound healing technologies face several limitations. Conventional dressings often fail to provide optimal moisture balance, leading to delayed healing. Bioengineered skin substitutes and growth factor therapies, while promising, are restricted by high costs, limited availability, immune rejection, and inconsistent efficacy. Moreover, infection control remains a significant challenge, necessitating alternative strategies that can enhance antimicrobial protection while promoting tissue regeneration. In response, nanotechnology has emerged as a potential game-changer in wound care, offering precise targeting of cells and regulatory molecules, enhanced therapeutic delivery, and tailored interaction with the wound environment. This review explores the role of nanomaterials in wound healing, emphasising their unique physicochemical properties and ability to promote tissue regeneration. We provide an overview of recent advances in nanotechnology, including nanoparticles, nanoengineered scaffolds, and gene and stem cell therapies. Additionally, we highlight the preclinical and clinical advancements of nanotechnology-based treatments, aiming to address the limitations of traditional wound care strategies.

3D-Bioprinting for Precision Microtissue Engineering: Advances, Applications, and Prospects

Microtissues, engineered to emulate the complexity of human organs, are revolutionizing the fields of regenerative medicine, disease modelling, and drug screening. Despite the promise of traditional microtissue engineering, it has yet to achieve the precision required to fully replicate organ-like structures. Enter 3D bioprinting, a transformative approach that offers unparalleled control over the microtissue's spatial arrangement and mechanical properties. This cutting-edge technology enables the detailed layering of bioinks, crafting microtissues with tissue-like 3D structures. It allows for the direct construction of organoids and the fine-tuning of the mechanical forces vital for tissue maturation. Moreover, 3D-printed devices provide microtissues with the necessary guidance and microenvironments, facilitating sophisticated tissue interactions. The applications of 3D-printed microtissues are expanding rapidly, with successful demonstrations of their functionality in vitro and in vivo. This technology excels at replicating the intricate processes of tissue development, offering a more ethical and controlled alternative to traditional animal models. By simulating in vivo conditions, 3D-printed microtissues are emerging as powerful tools for personalized drug screening, offering new avenues for pharmaceutical development and precision medicine.

Spinal cord injury repair based on drug and cell delivery: From remodeling microenvironment to relay connection formation

Spinal cord injury (SCI) presents a formidable challenge in clinical settings, resulting in sensory and motor function loss and imposing significant personal and societal burdens. However, owning to the adverse microenvironment and limited regenerative capacity, achieving complete functional recovery after SCI remains elusive. Additionally, traditional interventions including surgery and medication have a series of limitations that restrict the effectiveness of treatment. Recently, tissue engineering (TE) has emerged as a promising approach for promoting neural regeneration and functional recovery in SCI, which can effectively delivery drugs into injury site and delivery cells and improve the survival and differential. Here, we outline the main pathophysiology events of SCI and the adverse microenvironment post injury, further discuss the materials and common assembly strategies used for scaffolds in SCI treatment, expound on the latest advancements in treatment methods based on materials and scaffolds for drug and cell delivery in detail, and propose future directions for SCI repair with TE and highlight potential clinical applications.

Harnessing native blueprints for designing bioinks to bioprint functional cardiac tissue

Cardiac tissue lacks regenerative capacity, making heart transplantation the primary treatment for end-stage heart failure. Engineered cardiac tissues developed through three-dimensional bioprinting (3DBP) offer a promising alternative. However, reproducing the native structure, cellular diversity, and functionality of cardiac tissue requires advanced cardiac bioinks. Major obstacles in CTE (cardiac tissue engineering) include accurately characterizing bioink properties, replicating the cardiac microenvironment, and achieving precise spatial organization. Optimizing bioink properties to closely mimic the extracellular matrix (ECM) is essential, as deviations may result in pathological effects. This review encompasses the rheological and electromechanical properties of bioinks and the function of the cardiac microenvironment in the design of functional cardiac constructs. Furthermore, it focuses on improving the rheological characteristics, printability, and functionality of bioinks, offering valuable perspectives for developing new bioinks especially designed for CTE.

Metal-phenolic network biointerface-mediated cell regulation for bone tissue regeneration

Bone tissue regeneration presents a significant challenge in clinical treatment due to inadequate coordination between implant materials and reparative cells at the biomaterial-bone interfaces. This gap underscores the necessity of enhancing interaction modulation between cells and biomaterials, which is a crucial focus in bone tissue engineering. Metal-polyphenolic networks (MPN) are novel inorganic-organic hybrid complexes that are formed through coordination interactions between phenolic ligands and metal ions. These networks provide a multifunctional platform for biomedical applications, with the potential for tailored design and modifications. Despite advances in understanding MPN and their role in bone tissue regeneration, a comprehensive overview of the related mechanisms is lacking. Here, we address this gap by focusing on MPN biointerface-mediated cellular regulatory mechanisms during bone regeneration. We begin by reviewing the natural healing processes of bone defects, followed by a detailed examination of MPN, including their constituents and distinctive characteristics. We then explore the regulatory influence of MPN biointerfaces on key cellular activities during bone regeneration. Additionally, we illustrate their primary applications in addressing inflammatory bone loss, regenerating critical-size bone defects, and enhancing implant-bone integration. In conclusion, this review elucidates how MPN-based interfaces facilitate effective bone tissue regeneration, advancing our understanding of material interface-mediated cellular control and the broader field of tissue engineering.

Bioactive MgO/MgCO3/Polycaprolactone Multi-gradient Fibers Facilitate Peripheral Nerve Regeneration by Regulating Schwann Cell Function and Activating Wingless/Integrase-1 Signaling

Peripheral nerve defects present complex orthopedic challenges with limited efficacy of clinical interventions. The inadequate proliferation and dysfunction of Schwann cells within the nerve scaffold impede the effectiveness of nerve repair. Our previous studies suggested the effectiveness of a magnesium-encapsulated bioactive hydrogel in repairing nerve defects. However, its rapid release of magnesium ions limited its efficacy to long-term nerve regeneration, and its molecular mechanism remains unclear. This study utilized electrospinning technology to fabricate a MgO/MgCO3/polycaprolactone (PCL) multi-gradient nanofiber membrane for peripheral nerve regeneration. Our findings indicated that by carefully adjusting the concentration or proportion of rapidly degradable MgO and slowly degradable MgCO3, as well as the number of electrospun layers, the multi-gradient scaffold effectively sustained the release of Mg2+ over a period of 6 weeks. Additionally, this study provided insight into the mechanism of Mg2+-induced nerve regeneration and confirmed that Mg2+ effectively promoted Schwann cell proliferation, migration, and transition to a repair phenotype. By employing transcriptome sequencing technology, the study identified the Wingless/integrase-1 (Wnt) signaling pathway as a crucial mechanism influencing Schwann cell function during nerve regeneration. After implantation in 10 mm critically sized nerve defects in rats, the MgO/MgCO3/PCL multi-gradient nanofiber combined with a 3D-engineered PCL nerve conduit showed enhanced axonal regeneration, remyelination, and reinnervation of muscle tissue 12 weeks post-surgery. In conclusion, this study successfully developed an innovative multi-gradient long-acting MgO/MgCO3/PCL nanofiber with a tunable Mg2+ release property, which underscored the molecular mechanism of magnesium-encapsulated biomaterials in treating nervous system diseases and established a robust theoretical foundation for future clinical translation.

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In Situ Proefferocytosis Microspheres as Macrophage Polarity Converters Accelerate Osteoarthritis Treatment

Efferocytosis in macrophages typically engages an anti-inflammatory positive feedback regulatory mechanism. In osteoarthritis (OA), characterized by imbalanced inflammatory homeostasis, the proinflammatory state of macrophages in the immune microenvironment can be reversed through enhanced efferocytosis. This study develops an in situ proefferocytosis hydrogel microsphere (macrophage polarity converter, H-C@IL) for OA treatment. Immunoliposomes (IL), CD16/32 antibody-modified clodronate liposomes, are initially prepared using the Re-emulsion method. Then, the IL is loaded into CCL19-modified HAMA microspheres through microfluidic technology. In vitro, H-C@IL can specifically recruit M0 and M1 macrophages via CCL19, induce apoptosis in M1 macrophages through secondary targeting with IL, and provide "Find/Eat-me" signals to enhance in situ efferocytosis. Additionally, it promotes macrophage polarization toward the M2 phenotype. In vivo, behavioral, imaging, and histological analyses demonstrate that H-C@IL effectively facilitates macrophage polarization toward M2, inhibits inflammation, and promotes cartilage regeneration. Mechanistically, H-C@IL enhances efferocytosis by activating proteins such as PROS1 and TIMD4 in M0 macrophages. Concurrently, signaling pathways, including PQLC2-Arg-Rac1 and Pbx1/IL-10, are activated to drive the polarization of macrophages from M0 to M2. In summary, H-C@IL promotes M0 macrophage efferocytosis in situ, facilitates macrophage polarization toward M2, restores inflammatory homeostasis, and promotes cartilage regeneration, offering a comprehensive treatment strategy for OA.

Rheological Characterization and Printability of Sodium Alginate-Gelatin Hydrogel for 3D Cultures and Bioprinting

The development of biocompatible hydrogels for 3D bioprinting is essential for creating functional tissue models and advancing preclinical drug testing. This study investigates the formulation, printability, mechanical properties, and biocompatibility of a novel Alg-Gel hydrogel blend (alginate and gelatin) for use in extrusion-based 3D bioprinting. A range of hydrogel compositions were evaluated for their rheological behavior, including shear-thinning properties, storage modulus, and compressive modulus, which are crucial for maintaining structural integrity during printing and supporting cell viability. The printability assessment of the 7% alginate-8% gelatin hydrogel demonstrated that the 27T tapered needle achieved the highest normalized Printability Index (POInormalized = 1), offering the narrowest strand width (0.56 ± 0.02 mm) and the highest printing accuracy (97.2%) at the lowest printing pressure (30 psi). In contrast, the 30R needle, with the smallest inner diameter (0.152 mm) and highest printing pressure (80 psi), resulted in the widest strand width (0.70 ± 0.01 mm) and the lowest accuracy (88.8%), resulting in a POInormalized of 0.274. The 30T and 27R needles demonstrated moderate performance, with POInormalized values of 0.758 and 0.558, respectively. The optimized 7% alginate and 8% gelatin blend demonstrated favorable printability, mechanical strength, and cell compatibility with MDA-MB-213 breast cancer cells, exhibiting high cell proliferation rates and minimal cytotoxicity over a 2-week culture period. This formulation offers a balanced approach, providing sufficient viscosity for precision printing while minimizing shear stress to preserve cell health. This work lays the groundwork for future advancements in bioprinted cancer models, contributing to the development of more effective tools for drug screening and personalized medicine.

Exploiting the Potential of Decellularized Extracellular Matrix (ECM) in Tissue Engineering: A Review Study

While significant progress has been made in creating polymeric structures for tissue engineering, the therapeutic application of these scaffolds remains challenging owing to the intricate nature of replicating the conditions of native organs and tissues. The use of human-derived biomaterials for therapeutic purposes closely imitates the properties of natural tissue, thereby assisting in tissue regeneration. Decellularized extracellular matrix (dECM) scaffolds derived from natural tissues have become popular because of their unique biomimetic properties. These dECM scaffolds can enhance the body's ability to heal itself or be used to generate new tissues for restoration, expanding beyond traditional tissue transfers and transplants. Enhanced knowledge of how ECM scaffold materials affect the microenvironment at the injury site is expected to improve clinical outcomes. In this review, recent advancements in dECM scaffolds are explored and relevant perspectives are offered, highlighting the development and application of these scaffolds in tissue engineering for various organs, such as the skin, nerve, bone, heart, liver, lung, and kidney.

Materials-based hair follicle engineering: Basic components and recent advances

The hair follicle (HF) is a significant skin appendage whose primary function is to produce the hair shaft. HFs are a non-renewable resource; skin damage or follicle closure may lead to permanent hair loss. Advances in biomaterials and biomedical engineering enable the feasibility of manipulating the HF-associated cell function for follicle reconstruction via rational design. The regeneration of bioengineered HF addresses the issue of limited resources and contributes to advancements in research and applications in hair loss treatment, HF development, and drug screening. Based on these requirements, this review summarizes the basic and recent advances in hair follicle regulation, including four components: acquisition of stem cells, signaling pathways, materials, and engineering methods. Recent studies have focused on efficiently combining these components and reproducing functionality, which would boost fabrication in HF rebuilding ex vivo, thereby eliminating the obstacles of transplantation into animals to promote mature development.

Electrohydrodynamic Direct-Writing Micro/Nanofibrous Architectures: Principle, Materials, and Biomedical Applications

Electrohydrodynamic (EHD) direct-writing has recently gained attention as a highly promising additive manufacturing strategy for fabricating intricate micro/nanoscale architectures. This technique is particularly well-suited for mimicking the extracellular matrix (ECM) present in biological tissue, which serves a vital function in facilitating cell colonization, migration, and growth. The integration of EHD direct-writing with other techniques has been employed to enhance the biological performance of scaffolds, and significant advancements have been made in the development of tailored scaffold architectures and constituents to meet the specific requirements of various biomedical applications. Here, a comprehensive overview of EHD direct-writing is provided, including its underlying principles, demonstrated materials systems, and biomedical applications. A brief chronology of EHD direct-writing is provided, along with an examination of the observed phenomena that occur during the printing process. The impact of biomaterial selection and architectural topographic cues on biological performance is also highlighted. Finally, the major limitations associated with EHD direct-writing are discussed.

Atomic force microscopy for characterization of decellularized extracellular matrix (dECM) based materials

In live organisms, cells are embedded in tissue-specific extracellular matrix (ECM), which provides chemical and mechanical signals important for cell differentiation, migration, and overall functionality. Careful reproduction of ECM properties in artificial cell scaffolds is necessary to get physiologically relevant results of in vitro studies and produce robust materials for cell and tissue engineering. Nanoarchitectonics is a contemporary way to building complex materials from nano-scale objects of artificial and biological origin. Decellularized ECM (dECM), remaining after cell elimination from organs, tissues and cell cultures is arguably the closest equivalent of native ECM achievable today. dECM-based materials can be used as templates or components for producing cell scaffolds using nanoarchitectonic approach. Irrespective of the form, in which dECM is used (whole acellular organ/tissue, bioink or hydrogel), the local stiffness of the dECM scaffold must be evaluated, since the fate of seeded cells depends on the mechanical properties of their environment. Careful dECM characterization is also necessary to reproduce essential ECM traits in artificial cell scaffolds by nanoparticle assembly. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is a valuable characterization tool, as it allows simultaneous assessment of mechanical and topographic features of the scaffold, and additionally evaluate the efficiency of decellularization process and preservation of the extracellular matrix. This review depicts the current application of AFM in the field of dECM-based materials, including the basics of AFM technique and the use of flicker-noise spectroscopy (FNS) method for the quantification of the dECM micro- and nanostructure.

3D Printed Multifunctional Biomimetic Bone Scaffold Combined with TP-Mg Nanoparticles for the Infectious Bone Defects Repair

Infected bone defects are one of the most challenging problems in the treatment of bone defects due to the high antibiotic failure rate and the lack of ideal bone grafts. In this paper, inspired by clinical bone cement filling treatment, α-c phosphate (α-TCP) with self-curing properties is composited with β-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP) and constructed a bionic cancellous bone scaffolding system α/β-tricalcium phosphate (α/β-TCP) by low-temperature 3D printing, and gelatin is preserved inside the scaffolds as an organic phase, and later loaded with a metal-polyphenol network structure of tea polyphenol-magnesium (TP-Mg) nanoparticles. The scaffolds mimic the structure and components of cancellous bone with high mechanical strength (>100 MPa) based on α-TCP self-curing properties through low-temperature 3D printing. Meanwhile, the scaffolds loaded with TP-Mg exhibit significant inhibition of Staphylococcus aureus (S.aureus) and promote the transition of macrophages from M1 pro-inflammatory to M2 anti-inflammatory phenotype. In addition, the composite scaffold also exhibits excellent bone-enhancing effects based on the synergistic effect of Mg2+ and Ca2+. In this study, a multifunctional ceramic scaffold (α/β-TCP@TP-Mg) that integrates anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and osteoinduction is constructed, which promotes late bone regenerative healing while modulating the early microenvironment of infected bone defects, has a promising application in the treatment of infected bone defects.

Flexible Sono-Piezo Patch for Functional Sweat Gland Repair through Endogenous Microenvironmental Remodeling

Remodeling the endogenous regenerative microenvironment in wounds is crucial for achieving scarless, functional tissue regeneration, especially the functional recovery of skin appendages such as sweat glands in burn patients. However, current approaches mostly rely on the use of exogenous materials or chemicals to stimulate cell proliferation and migration, while the remodeling of a pro-regenerative microenvironment remains challenging. Herein, we developed a flexible sono-piezo patch (fSPP) that aims to create an endogenous regenerative microenvironment to promote the repair of sweat glands in burn wounds. This patch, composed of multifunctional fibers with embedded piezoelectric nanoparticles, utilized low-intensity pulsed ultrasound (LIPUS) to activate electrical stimulation of the target tissue, resulting in enhanced pro-regenerative behaviors of niche tissues and cells, including peripheral nerves, fibroblasts, and vasculatures. We further demonstrated the effective wound healing and regeneration of functional sweat glands in burn injuries solely through such physical stimulation. This noninvasive and drug-free therapeutic approach holds significant potential for the clinical treatment of burn injuries.