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Biswal BK, Zhang B, Thi Minh Tran P, Zhang J, Balasubramanian R. Recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries for a sustainable future: recent advancements. Chem Soc Rev 2024; 53:5552-5592. [PMID: 38644694 DOI: 10.1039/d3cs00898c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/23/2024]
Abstract
Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are widely used as power storage systems in electronic devices and electric vehicles (EVs). Recycling of spent LIBs is of utmost importance from various perspectives including recovery of valuable metals (mostly Co and Li) and mitigation of environmental pollution. Recycling methods such as direct recycling, pyrometallurgy, hydrometallurgy, bio-hydrometallurgy (bioleaching) and electrometallurgy are generally used to resynthesise LIBs. These methods have their own benefits and drawbacks. This manuscript provides a critical review of recent advances in the recycling of spent LIBs, including the development of recycling processes, identification of the products obtained from recycling, and the effects of recycling methods on environmental burdens. Insights into chemical reactions, thermodynamics, kinetics, and the influence of operating parameters of each recycling technology are provided. The sustainability of recycling technologies (e.g., life cycle assessment and life cycle cost analysis) is critically evaluated. Finally, the existing challenges and future prospects are presented for further development of sustainable, highly efficient, and environmentally benign recycling of spent LIBs to contribute to the circular economy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Basanta Kumar Biswal
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117576, Singapore.
| | - Bei Zhang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117576, Singapore.
| | - Phuong Thi Minh Tran
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117576, Singapore.
- The University of Danang - University of Science and Technology, 54 Nguyen Luong Bang Str., Danang City, Vietnam
| | - Jingjing Zhang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117576, Singapore.
| | - Rajasekhar Balasubramanian
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117576, Singapore.
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Huang M, Wang M, Yang L, Wang Z, Yu H, Chen K, Han F, Chen L, Xu C, Wang L, Shao P, Luo X. Direct Regeneration of Spent Lithium-Ion Battery Cathodes: From Theoretical Study to Production Practice. NANO-MICRO LETTERS 2024; 16:207. [PMID: 38819753 PMCID: PMC11143129 DOI: 10.1007/s40820-024-01434-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2024] [Accepted: 04/30/2024] [Indexed: 06/01/2024]
Abstract
Direct regeneration method has been widely concerned by researchers in the field of battery recycling because of its advantages of in situ regeneration, short process and less pollutant emission. In this review, we firstly analyze the primary causes for the failure of three representative battery cathodes (lithium iron phosphate, layered lithium transition metal oxide and lithium cobalt oxide), targeting at illustrating their underlying regeneration mechanism and applicability. Efficient stripping of material from the collector to obtain pure cathode material has become a first challenge in recycling, for which we report several pretreatment methods currently available for subsequent regeneration processes. We review and discuss emphatically the research progress of five direct regeneration methods, including solid-state sintering, hydrothermal, eutectic molten salt, electrochemical and chemical lithiation methods. Finally, the application of direct regeneration technology in production practice is introduced, the problems exposed at the early stage of the industrialization of direct regeneration technology are revealed, and the prospect of future large-scale commercial production is proposed. It is hoped that this review will give readers a comprehensive and basic understanding of direct regeneration methods for used lithium-ion batteries and promote the industrial application of direct regeneration technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meiting Huang
- National-Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Heavy Metals Pollutants Control and Resource Utilization, Nanchang Hangkong University, Nanchang, 330063, People's Republic of China
| | - Mei Wang
- National-Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Heavy Metals Pollutants Control and Resource Utilization, Nanchang Hangkong University, Nanchang, 330063, People's Republic of China
| | - Liming Yang
- National-Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Heavy Metals Pollutants Control and Resource Utilization, Nanchang Hangkong University, Nanchang, 330063, People's Republic of China.
| | - Zhihao Wang
- National-Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Heavy Metals Pollutants Control and Resource Utilization, Nanchang Hangkong University, Nanchang, 330063, People's Republic of China
| | - Haoxuan Yu
- National-Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Heavy Metals Pollutants Control and Resource Utilization, Nanchang Hangkong University, Nanchang, 330063, People's Republic of China
| | - Kechun Chen
- National-Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Heavy Metals Pollutants Control and Resource Utilization, Nanchang Hangkong University, Nanchang, 330063, People's Republic of China
| | - Fei Han
- National-Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Heavy Metals Pollutants Control and Resource Utilization, Nanchang Hangkong University, Nanchang, 330063, People's Republic of China
| | - Liang Chen
- Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Advanced Carbon-based Functional Materials, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering,, Hunan Institute of Science and Technology, Yueyang, 414006, People's Republic of China.
| | - Chenxi Xu
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha, 410004, People's Republic of China
| | - Lihua Wang
- Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Advanced Carbon-based Functional Materials, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering,, Hunan Institute of Science and Technology, Yueyang, 414006, People's Republic of China
- School of Life Science, Jinggangshan University, Ji'an, 343009, People's Republic of China
| | - Penghui Shao
- National-Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Heavy Metals Pollutants Control and Resource Utilization, Nanchang Hangkong University, Nanchang, 330063, People's Republic of China
| | - Xubiao Luo
- National-Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Heavy Metals Pollutants Control and Resource Utilization, Nanchang Hangkong University, Nanchang, 330063, People's Republic of China.
- School of Life Science, Jinggangshan University, Ji'an, 343009, People's Republic of China.
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Vauloup J, Bouilhac C, Sougrati MT, Stievano L, Coppey N, Zitolo A, Monconduit L, Lacroix-Desmazes P. Lithium and cobalt extraction from LiCoO 2 assisted by p(VBPDA-co-FDA) copolymers in supercritical CO 2. WASTE MANAGEMENT (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2024; 181:199-210. [PMID: 38643515 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2024.03.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2023] [Revised: 01/30/2024] [Accepted: 03/12/2024] [Indexed: 04/23/2024]
Abstract
Supercritical CO2 (scCO2) extraction assisted by complexing copolymers is a promising process to recover valuable metals from lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). CO2, in addition to being non-toxic, abundant and non-flammable, allows an easy separation of metal-complexes from the extraction medium by depressurization, limiting the wastewater production. In this study, CO2-philic gradient copolymers bearing phosphonic diacid complexing groups (poly(vinylbenzylphosphonic diacid-co-1,1,2,2-tetrahydroperfluorodecylacrylate), p(VBPDA-co-FDA)) were synthesized for the extraction of lithium and cobalt from LiCoO2 cathode material. Notably, the copolymer was able to play the triple role of leaching agent, complexing agent and surfactant. The proof of concept for leaching, complexation and extraction was achieved, using two different extraction systems. A first extraction system used aqueous hydrogen peroxide as reducing agent while it was replaced by ethanol in the second extraction system. The scCO2 extraction conditions such as extraction time, temperature, functional copolymer concentration, and the presence of additives were optimized to improve the metals extraction from LiCoO2 cathode material, leading to an extraction efficiency of Li and Co up to ca. 75 % at 60 °C and 250 bar.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua Vauloup
- ICGM, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, ENSCM, Montpellier, France
| | | | - Moulay Tahar Sougrati
- ICGM, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, ENSCM, Montpellier, France; RS2E, Réseau Français sur le Stockage Electrochimique de l'Energie, FR CNRS #3459, Amiens F-80039 Cedex 1, France
| | - Lorenzo Stievano
- ICGM, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, ENSCM, Montpellier, France; RS2E, Réseau Français sur le Stockage Electrochimique de l'Energie, FR CNRS #3459, Amiens F-80039 Cedex 1, France
| | | | | | - Laure Monconduit
- ICGM, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, ENSCM, Montpellier, France; RS2E, Réseau Français sur le Stockage Electrochimique de l'Energie, FR CNRS #3459, Amiens F-80039 Cedex 1, France
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Boz B, Fröhlich K, Neidhart L, Molaiyan P, Bertoni G, Ricci M, De Boni F, Vuksanovic M, Romio M, Whitmore K, Jahn M. Evaluating Polyacrylic Acid as a Universal Aqueous Binder for Ni-Rich Cathodes NMC811 and Si Anodes in Full Cell Lithium-ion Batteries. Chempluschem 2024:e202400195. [PMID: 38666666 DOI: 10.1002/cplu.202400195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2024] [Revised: 04/26/2024] [Indexed: 05/19/2024]
Abstract
Silicon (Si) and silicon/graphite (Si/Gr) composite anodes are promising candidates due to their high theoretical capacity, low operating potential and natural abundance for high energy density Li-ion batteries. Green electrode production, eliminating organic volatile solvents require advancement of aqueous electrodes. Engineering the binder plays a critical role for improving waterborne electrodes. Lithium substituted polyacrylic acid LiPAA has been demonstrated as a promising binder for Si/Gr anodes and for Ni-rich cathodes in different cell configurations. LiPAA is utilized to minimize the volume expansion during cycling for Si/Gr anodes. LiPAA is formed in situ during cathode slurry preparation to regulate the pH and dimmish the Li loss. Using advanced characterization techniques, we investigated the slurries, electrodes, and active material reaction with LiPAA and its effect to the cycling performance. Our results indicate that the performance of high Si containing anode is limited by the amount of Si in the electrode. The failure mechanism with respect to high Si content was studied thoroughly. Aqueous processed cathodes with LiPAA binder in combination with Si anodes outperformed NMP based cathodes. Hence, LiPAA was successfully utilized as an active binder for both a high Si containing anode and for a Ni rich cathode.
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Affiliation(s)
- Buket Boz
- Battery Technologies, AIT Austrian Institute of Technology GmbH, Giefingasse 2, 1210, Vienna, Austria
| | - Katja Fröhlich
- Battery Technologies, AIT Austrian Institute of Technology GmbH, Giefingasse 2, 1210, Vienna, Austria
| | - Lukas Neidhart
- Battery Technologies, AIT Austrian Institute of Technology GmbH, Giefingasse 2, 1210, Vienna, Austria
| | - Palanivel Molaiyan
- Battery Technologies, AIT Austrian Institute of Technology GmbH, Giefingasse 2, 1210, Vienna, Austria
| | - Giovanni Bertoni
- CNR - Istituto Nanoscienze, Via G. Campi 213/A, 41125, Modena, Italy
| | - Marco Ricci
- Italian Institute of Technology, Center for Convergent Technologies, Delta Lab, Via Morego 30, 16163, Genova, Italy
- Department of Chemistry and Industrial Chemistry, University of Genova, via Dodecaneso 31, 16146, Genova, Italy
| | - Francesco De Boni
- Italian Institute of Technology, Center for Convergent Technologies, Delta Lab, Via Morego 30, 16163, Genova, Italy
| | - Miljana Vuksanovic
- Battery Technologies, AIT Austrian Institute of Technology GmbH, Giefingasse 2, 1210, Vienna, Austria
| | - Martina Romio
- Battery Technologies, AIT Austrian Institute of Technology GmbH, Giefingasse 2, 1210, Vienna, Austria
| | - Karin Whitmore
- TU Wien, Universitäre Serviceeinrichtung für Transmissions-Elektronenmikroskopie, Wiedner Hauptstraße 8-10/057-02, 1040, Vienna, Austria
| | - Marcus Jahn
- Battery Technologies, AIT Austrian Institute of Technology GmbH, Giefingasse 2, 1210, Vienna, Austria
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Buchheiser S, Kistner F, Rhein F, Nirschl H. Spray Flame Synthesis and Multiscale Characterization of Carbon Black-Silica Hetero-Aggregates. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 13:1893. [PMID: 37368323 DOI: 10.3390/nano13121893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2023] [Revised: 06/14/2023] [Accepted: 06/16/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023]
Abstract
The increasing demand for lithium-ion batteries requires constant improvements in the areas of production and recycling to reduce their environmental impact. In this context, this work presents a method for structuring carbon black aggregates by adding colloidal silica via a spray flame with the goal of opening up more choices for polymeric binders. The main focus of this research lies in the multiscale characterization of the aggregate properties via small-angle X-ray scattering, analytical disc centrifugation and electron microscopy. The results show successful formation of sinter-bridges between silica and carbon black leading to an increase in hydrodynamic aggregate diameter from 201 nm to up to 357 nm, with no significant changes in primary particle properties. However, segregation and coalescence of silica particles was identified for higher mass ratios of silica to carbon black, resulting in a reduction in the homogeneity of the hetero-aggregates. This effect was particularly evident for silica particles with larger diameters of 60 nm. Consequently, optimal conditions for hetero-aggregation were identified at mass ratios below 1 and particle sizes around 10 nm, at which homogenous distributions of silica within the carbon black structure were achieved. The results emphasise the general applicability of hetero-aggregation via spray flames with possible applications as battery materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Buchheiser
- Process Machines, Institute of Mechanical Process Engineering and Mechanics, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Ferdinand Kistner
- Process Machines, Institute of Mechanical Process Engineering and Mechanics, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Frank Rhein
- Process Machines, Institute of Mechanical Process Engineering and Mechanics, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Hermann Nirschl
- Process Machines, Institute of Mechanical Process Engineering and Mechanics, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
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Huang H, Liu C, Sun Z. In-situ pyrolysis based on alkaline medium removes fluorine-containing contaminants from spent lithium-ion batteries. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2023; 457:131782. [PMID: 37307731 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.131782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2023] [Revised: 05/14/2023] [Accepted: 06/03/2023] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Pyrolysis is an effective method for removing organic contaminants (e.g. electrolytes, solid electrolyte interface (SEI), and polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) binders) from spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). However, during pyrolysis, the metal oxides in black mass (BM) readily react with fluorine-containing contaminants, resulting in a high content of dissociable fluorine in pyrolyzed BM and fluorine-containing wastewater in subsequent hydrometallurgical processes. Herein, an in-situ pyrolysis process is proposed to control the transition pathway of fluorine species in BM using Ca(OH)2-based materials. Results show that the designed fluorine removal additives (FRA@Ca(OH)2) can effectively scavenge SEI components (LixPOFy) and PVDF binders from BM. During the in-situ pyrolysis, potential fluorine species (e.g. HF, PF5, and POF3) are adsorbed and converted to CaF2 on the surface of FRA@Ca(OH)2 additives, thereby inhibiting the fluorination reaction with electrode materials. Under the optimal experimental conditions (temperature = 400 °C, BM: FRA@Ca(OH)2 = 1: 4, holding time = 1.0 h), the dissociable fluorine content in BM was reduced from 3.84 wt% to 2.54 wt%. The inherent metal fluorides in BM feedstock hinder the further removal of fluorine with pyrolysis treatment. This study provides a potential strategy for source control of fluorine-containing contaminants in the recycling process of spent LIBs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanlin Huang
- Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Data Center, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China; School of Chemical Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 101407, China; National Engineering Research Center of Green Recycling for Strategic Metal Resources, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Chunwei Liu
- Suzhou Botree Cycling Sci. & Tech Co., Ltd, China
| | - Zhi Sun
- Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Data Center, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China; School of Chemical Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 101407, China; National Engineering Research Center of Green Recycling for Strategic Metal Resources, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China.
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