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Ruggiero M, Calvello R, Porro C, Messina G, Cianciulli A, Panaro MA. Neurodegenerative Diseases: Can Caffeine Be a Powerful Ally to Weaken Neuroinflammation? Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232112958. [PMID: 36361750 PMCID: PMC9658704 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232112958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2022] [Revised: 10/18/2022] [Accepted: 10/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, there has been considerable research showing that coffee consumption seems to be beneficial to human health, as it contains a mixture of different bioactive compounds such as chlorogenic acids, caffeic acid, alkaloids, diterpenes and polyphenols. Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) are debilitating, and non-curable diseases associated with impaired central, peripheral and muscle nervous systems. Several studies demonstrate that neuroinflammation mediated by glial cells—such as microglia and astrocytes—is a critical factor contributing to neurodegeneration that causes the dysfunction of brain homeostasis, resulting in a progressive loss of structure, function, and number of neuronal cells. This happens over time and leads to brain damage and physical impairment. The most known chronic NDs are represented by Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson’s disease (PD), multiple sclerosis (MS), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and Huntington’s disease (HD). According to epidemiological studies, regular coffee consumption is associated with a lower risk of neurodegenerative diseases. In this review, we summarize the latest research about the potential effects of caffeine in neurodegenerative disorders prevention and discuss the role of controlled caffeine delivery systems in maintaining high plasma caffeine concentrations for an extended time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melania Ruggiero
- Department of Biosciences, Biotechnologies and Environment, University of Bari, 70125 Bari, Italy
| | - Rosa Calvello
- Department of Biosciences, Biotechnologies and Environment, University of Bari, 70125 Bari, Italy
| | - Chiara Porro
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Foggia, 71121 Foggia, Italy
| | - Giovanni Messina
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Foggia, 71121 Foggia, Italy
| | - Antonia Cianciulli
- Department of Biosciences, Biotechnologies and Environment, University of Bari, 70125 Bari, Italy
| | - Maria Antonietta Panaro
- Department of Biosciences, Biotechnologies and Environment, University of Bari, 70125 Bari, Italy
- Correspondence:
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2
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Barragán-Álvarez CP, Flores-Fernandez JM, Hernández-Pérez OR, Ávila-Gónzalez D, Díaz NF, Padilla-Camberos E, Dublan-García O, Gómez-Oliván LM, Diaz-Martinez NE. Recent advances in the use of CRISPR/Cas for understanding the early development of molecular gaps in glial cells. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:947769. [PMID: 36120556 PMCID: PMC9479146 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.947769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2022] [Accepted: 08/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Glial cells are non-neuronal elements of the nervous system (NS) and play a central role in its development, maturation, and homeostasis. Glial cell interest has increased, leading to the discovery of novel study fields. The CRISPR/Cas system has been widely employed for NS understanding. Its use to study glial cells gives crucial information about their mechanisms and role in the central nervous system (CNS) and neurodegenerative disorders. Furthermore, the increasingly accelerated discovery of genes associated with the multiple implications of glial cells could be studied and complemented with the novel screening methods of high-content and single-cell screens at the genome-scale as Perturb-Seq, CRISP-seq, and CROPseq. Besides, the emerging methods, GESTALT, and LINNAEUS, employed to generate large-scale cell lineage maps have yielded invaluable information about processes involved in neurogenesis. These advances offer new therapeutic approaches to finding critical unanswered questions about glial cells and their fundamental role in the nervous system. Furthermore, they help to better understanding the significance of glial cells and their role in developmental biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla Patricia Barragán-Álvarez
- Laboratorio de Reprogramación Celular y Bioingeniería de Tejidos, Biotecnología Médica y Farmacéutica, Centro de Investigación y Asistencia en Tecnología y Diseño Del Estado de Jalisco, Guadalajara, Mexico
| | - José Miguel Flores-Fernandez
- Departamento de Investigación e Innovación, Universidad Tecnológica de Oriental, Oriental, Mexico
- Department of Biochemistry & Centre for Prions and Protein Folding Diseases, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | | | - Daniela Ávila-Gónzalez
- Laboratorio de Reprogramación Celular y Bioingeniería de Tejidos, Biotecnología Médica y Farmacéutica, Centro de Investigación y Asistencia en Tecnología y Diseño Del Estado de Jalisco, Guadalajara, Mexico
- Departamento de Fisiología y Desarrollo Celular, Instituto Nacional de Perinatología, México City, Mexico
| | - Nestor Fabian Díaz
- Departamento de Fisiología y Desarrollo Celular, Instituto Nacional de Perinatología, México City, Mexico
| | - Eduardo Padilla-Camberos
- Laboratorio de Reprogramación Celular y Bioingeniería de Tejidos, Biotecnología Médica y Farmacéutica, Centro de Investigación y Asistencia en Tecnología y Diseño Del Estado de Jalisco, Guadalajara, Mexico
| | - Octavio Dublan-García
- Laboratorio de Alimentos y Toxicología Ambiental, Facultad de Química, Universidad Autónoma Del Estado de México, Toluca, México
| | - Leobardo Manuel Gómez-Oliván
- Laboratorio de Alimentos y Toxicología Ambiental, Facultad de Química, Universidad Autónoma Del Estado de México, Toluca, México
| | - Nestor Emmanuel Diaz-Martinez
- Laboratorio de Reprogramación Celular y Bioingeniería de Tejidos, Biotecnología Médica y Farmacéutica, Centro de Investigación y Asistencia en Tecnología y Diseño Del Estado de Jalisco, Guadalajara, Mexico
- *Correspondence: Nestor Emmanuel Diaz-Martinez,
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3
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Patil V, O'Connell E, Quinlan LR, Fearnhead H, McMahon S, Pandit A. A robust platform for high-throughput screening of therapeutic strategies for acute and chronic spinal cord injury. iScience 2021; 24:102182. [PMID: 33718834 PMCID: PMC7921603 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2021.102182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2020] [Revised: 12/25/2020] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Astrocytes and microglia are critical regulators of inflammatory cascade after spinal cord injury (SCI). Existing glial in vitro studies do not replicate inflammatory phases associated with SCI. Here, we report an in vitro model of mixed glial culture where inflammation is induced by the administration of pro-inflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-1β, and interleukin-6) to promote pathologically relevant “acute” and “chronic” inflammatory phases. We observed SCI relevant differential modulation of inflammatory pathways, cytokines, chemokines, and growth factors over 21 days. Mitochondrial dysfunction was associated with a cytokine combination treatment. Highly expressed cytokine induced neutrophil chemoattractant (CINC-3) chemokine was used as a biomarker to establish an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay-based high-throughput screening (HTS) platform. We screened a 786-compound drug library to demonstrate the efficacy of the HTS platform. The developed model is robust and will facilitate in vitro screening of anti-reactive glial therapeutics for the treatment of SCI. An in vitro MGC model replicates the inflammatory phases associated with SCI Differential modulation in NF-κB, MAPK, and immunomodulatory pathways over 21 days Change in mitochondrial bioenergetics over seven days ELISA-based HTS platform using CINC-3 as a biomarker is established
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Affiliation(s)
- Vaibhav Patil
- CÚRAM, SFI Research Centre for Medical Devices, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland
| | - Enda O'Connell
- Genomics and Screening Core Facility, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland
| | - Leo R Quinlan
- CÚRAM, SFI Research Centre for Medical Devices, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland.,Physiology, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland
| | - Howard Fearnhead
- Pharmacology and Therapeutics, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland
| | - Siobhan McMahon
- CÚRAM, SFI Research Centre for Medical Devices, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland.,Anatomy, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland
| | - Abhay Pandit
- CÚRAM, SFI Research Centre for Medical Devices, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland
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4
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New Inhibitory Effects of Cilnidipine on Microglial P2X7 Receptors and IL-1β Release: An Involvement in its Alleviating Effect on Neuropathic Pain. Cells 2021; 10:cells10020434. [PMID: 33670748 PMCID: PMC7922706 DOI: 10.3390/cells10020434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2020] [Revised: 02/10/2021] [Accepted: 02/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
P2X7 receptors (P2X7Rs) belong to a family of ATP-gated non-selective cation channels. Microglia represent a major cell type expressing P2X7Rs. The activation of microglial P2X7Rs causes the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-1β (IL-1β). This response has been implicated in neuroinflammatory states in the central nervous system and in various diseases, including neuropathic pain. Thus, P2X7R may represent a potential therapeutic target. In the present study, we screened a chemical library of clinically approved drugs (1979 compounds) by high-throughput screening and showed that the Ca2+ channel blocker cilnidipine has an inhibitory effect on rodent and human P2X7R. In primary cultured rat microglial cells, cilnidipine inhibited P2X7R-mediated Ca2+ responses and IL-1β release. Moreover, in a rat model of neuropathic pain, the intrathecal administration of cilnidipine produced a reversal of nerve injury-induced mechanical hypersensitivity, a cardinal symptom of neuropathic pain. These results point to a new inhibitory effect of cilnidipine on microglial P2X7R-mediated inflammatory responses and neuropathic pain, proposing its therapeutic potential.
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5
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Hemonnot-Girard AL, Ben Haim L, Escartin C, Hirbec H. [New technologies to unveil the role of brain glial cells]. Med Sci (Paris) 2021; 37:59-67. [PMID: 33492220 DOI: 10.1051/medsci/2020253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Brain function relies on complex interactions between neurons and different types of glial cells, such as astrocytes, microglia and oligodendrocytes. The relatively young field of "gliobiology" is thriving. Thanks to various technical innovations, it is now possible to address challenging biological questions on glial cells and unravel their multiple roles in brain function and dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lucile Ben Haim
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, MIRCen (Molecular Imaging Research Center), Laboratoire des maladies neurodégénératives, 92265, Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - Carole Escartin
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, MIRCen (Molecular Imaging Research Center), Laboratoire des maladies neurodégénératives, 92265, Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - Hélène Hirbec
- IGF, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, Inserm, Montpellier, France
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6
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Hirbec H, Déglon N, Foo LC, Goshen I, Grutzendler J, Hangen E, Kreisel T, Linck N, Muffat J, Regio S, Rion S, Escartin C. Emerging technologies to study glial cells. Glia 2020; 68:1692-1728. [PMID: 31958188 DOI: 10.1002/glia.23780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2019] [Revised: 12/20/2019] [Accepted: 12/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Development, physiological functions, and pathologies of the brain depend on tight interactions between neurons and different types of glial cells, such as astrocytes, microglia, oligodendrocytes, and oligodendrocyte precursor cells. Assessing the relative contribution of different glial cell types is required for the full understanding of brain function and dysfunction. Over the recent years, several technological breakthroughs were achieved, allowing "glio-scientists" to address new challenging biological questions. These technical developments make it possible to study the roles of specific cell types with medium or high-content workflows and perform fine analysis of their mutual interactions in a preserved environment. This review illustrates the potency of several cutting-edge experimental approaches (advanced cell cultures, induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived human glial cells, viral vectors, in situ glia imaging, opto- and chemogenetic approaches, and high-content molecular analysis) to unravel the role of glial cells in specific brain functions or diseases. It also illustrates the translation of some techniques to the clinics, to monitor glial cells in patients, through specific brain imaging methods. The advantages, pitfalls, and future developments are discussed for each technique, and selected examples are provided to illustrate how specific "gliobiological" questions can now be tackled.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hélène Hirbec
- Institute for Functional Genomics (IGF), University of Montpellier, CNRS, INSERM, Montpellier, France
| | - Nicole Déglon
- Laboratory of Neurotherapies and Neuromodulation, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Lausanne University Hospital, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.,Laboratory of Neurotherapies and Neuromodulation, Neuroscience Research Center, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Lynette C Foo
- Neuroimmunology and Neurodegeneration Section, The Neuroscience and Rare Diseases Discovery and Translational Area, F. Hoffman-La Roche, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Inbal Goshen
- Edmond and Lily Safra Center for Brain Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Jaime Grutzendler
- Department of Neurology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA.,Department of Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Emilie Hangen
- Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives, Département de la Recherche Fondamentale, Institut de Biologie François Jacob, MIRCen, Fontenay-aux-Roses, France.,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Neurodegenerative Diseases Laboratory, Université Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, UMR 9199, Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - Tirzah Kreisel
- Edmond and Lily Safra Center for Brain Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Nathalie Linck
- Institute for Functional Genomics (IGF), University of Montpellier, CNRS, INSERM, Montpellier, France
| | - Julien Muffat
- Program in Neurosciences and Mental Health, The Hospital for Sick Children, and Department of Molecular Genetics, The University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Sara Regio
- Laboratory of Neurotherapies and Neuromodulation, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Lausanne University Hospital, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.,Laboratory of Neurotherapies and Neuromodulation, Neuroscience Research Center, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Sybille Rion
- Neuroimmunology and Neurodegeneration Section, The Neuroscience and Rare Diseases Discovery and Translational Area, F. Hoffman-La Roche, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Carole Escartin
- Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives, Département de la Recherche Fondamentale, Institut de Biologie François Jacob, MIRCen, Fontenay-aux-Roses, France.,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Neurodegenerative Diseases Laboratory, Université Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, UMR 9199, Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
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7
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Biber K, Bhattacharya A, Campbell BM, Piro JR, Rohe M, Staal RGW, Talanian RV, Möller T. Microglial Drug Targets in AD: Opportunities and Challenges in Drug Discovery and Development. Front Pharmacol 2019; 10:840. [PMID: 31507408 PMCID: PMC6716448 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2019.00840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2019] [Accepted: 07/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a large and increasing unmet medical need with no disease-modifying treatment currently available. Genetic evidence from genome-wide association studies (GWASs) and gene network analysis has clearly revealed a key role of the innate immune system in the brain, of which microglia are the most important element. Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in genes predominantly expressed in microglia have been associated with altered risk of developing AD. Furthermore, microglia-specific pathways are affected on the messenger RNA (mRNA) expression level in post-mortem AD tissue and in mouse models of AD. Together these findings have increased the interest in microglia biology, and numerous scientific reports have proposed microglial molecules and pathways as drug targets for AD. Target identification and validation are generally the first steps in drug discovery. Both target validation and drug lead identification for central nervous system (CNS) targets and diseases entail additional significant obstacles compared to peripheral targets and diseases. This makes CNS drug discovery, even with well-validated targets, challenging. In this article, we will illustrate the special challenges of AD drug discovery by discussing the viability/practicality of possible microglia drug targets including cluster of differentiation 33 (CD33), KCa3.1, kynurenines, ionotropic P2 receptor 7 (P2X7), programmed death-1 (PD-1), Toll-like receptors (TLRs), and triggering receptor expressed in myeloid cells 2 (TREM2).
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Affiliation(s)
- Knut Biber
- AbbVie Deutschland GmbH & Co. KG, Neuroscience Research, Ludwigshafen, Germany
| | | | | | - Justin R Piro
- AbbVie Foundational Neuroscience Center, Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Michael Rohe
- AbbVie Deutschland GmbH & Co. KG, Neuroscience Research, Ludwigshafen, Germany
| | | | - Robert V Talanian
- AbbVie Foundational Neuroscience Center, Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Thomas Möller
- AbbVie Foundational Neuroscience Center, Cambridge, MA, United States
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Abstract
The cellular mechanisms governing the expression, regulation, and function of sleep are not entirely understood. The traditional view is that these mechanisms are neuronal. An alternative view is that glial brain cells may play important roles in these processes. Their ubiquity in the central nervous system makes them well positioned to modulate neuronal circuits that gate sleep and wake. Their ability to respond to chemical neuronal signals suggests that they form feedback loops with neurons that may globally regulate neuronal activity. Their potential role in detoxifying the brain, regulating neuronal metabolism, and promoting synaptic plasticity raises the intriguing possibility that glia mediate important functions ascribed to sleep.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcos G Frank
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Elson S. Floyd College of Medicine, Washington State University Spokane, Spokane, WA, USA.
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9
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Magni G, Marinelli A, Riccio D, Lecca D, Tonelli C, Abbracchio MP, Petroni K, Ceruti S. Purple Corn Extract as Anti-allodynic Treatment for Trigeminal Pain: Role of Microglia. Front Cell Neurosci 2018; 12:378. [PMID: 30455630 PMCID: PMC6230559 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2018.00378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2018] [Accepted: 10/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural products have attracted interest in the search for new and effective analgesics and coadjuvant approaches to several types of pain. It is in fact well known that many of their active ingredients, such as anthocyanins (ACNs) and polyphenols, can exert potent anti-inflammatory actions. Nevertheless, their potential beneficial effects in orofacial painful syndromes have not been assessed yet. Here, we have evaluated the preventive effect of an ACN-enriched purple corn extract against the development of orofacial allodynia, in comparison with isogenic yellow corn extract containing only polyphenols. Orofacial allodynia developed following induction of temporomandibular joint (TMJ) inflammation in male rats, due to the injection of Complete Freund’s Adjuvant (CFA), and was evaluated by von Frey filaments. Animals drank purple or yellow corn extracts or water starting from 11 days before induction of inflammation and up to the end of the experiment 3 days later. To highlight possible additive and/or synergic actions, some animals also received the anti-inflammatory drug acetyl salicylic acid (ASA). In parallel with the evaluation of allodynia, we have focused our attention on the activation of microglia cells in the central nervous system (CNS), as it is well-known that they significantly contribute to neuronal sensitization and pain. Our data demonstrate that purple corn extract is as effective as ASA in preventing the development of orofacial allodynia, and only partial additive effect is observed when the two agents are co-administered. Yellow corn exerted no effect. Multiple mechanisms are possibly involved in the action of purple corn, including reduction of trigeminal macrophage infiltration and the shift of microglia cell polarization to an anti-inflammatory phenotype. In fact, in rats receiving yellow corn or water microglia cells show thick, short cell processes typical of activated cells. Conversely, thinner and longer microglia cell processes are observed in the brainstem of animals drinking purple corn extract; shape changes are accompanied by a reduction in the expression of pro-inflammatory molecules and increased production of anti-inflammatory mediators. Administration of purple corn extracts therefore represents a possible low-cost and easy way to reduce trigeminal-associated pain in various pathological conditions also thanks to the modulation of microglia reactivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Magni
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | | | - Daniele Riccio
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Davide Lecca
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Chiara Tonelli
- Department of Biosciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Maria P Abbracchio
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Katia Petroni
- Department of Biosciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Stefania Ceruti
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
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Skaper SD, Facci L, Zusso M, Giusti P. An Inflammation-Centric View of Neurological Disease: Beyond the Neuron. Front Cell Neurosci 2018; 12:72. [PMID: 29618972 PMCID: PMC5871676 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2018.00072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 275] [Impact Index Per Article: 45.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2018] [Accepted: 02/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Inflammation is a complex biological response fundamental to how the body deals with injury and infection to eliminate the initial cause of cell injury and effect repair. Unlike a normally beneficial acute inflammatory response, chronic inflammation can lead to tissue damage and ultimately its destruction, and often results from an inappropriate immune response. Inflammation in the nervous system (“neuroinflammation”), especially when prolonged, can be particularly injurious. While inflammation per se may not cause disease, it contributes importantly to disease pathogenesis across both the peripheral (neuropathic pain, fibromyalgia) and central [e.g., Alzheimer disease, Parkinson disease, multiple sclerosis, motor neuron disease, ischemia and traumatic brain injury, depression, and autism spectrum disorder] nervous systems. The existence of extensive lines of communication between the nervous system and immune system represents a fundamental principle underlying neuroinflammation. Immune cell-derived inflammatory molecules are critical for regulation of host responses to inflammation. Although these mediators can originate from various non-neuronal cells, important sources in the above neuropathologies appear to be microglia and mast cells, together with astrocytes and possibly also oligodendrocytes. Understanding neuroinflammation also requires an appreciation that non-neuronal cell—cell interactions, between both glia and mast cells and glia themselves, are an integral part of the inflammation process. Within this context the mast cell occupies a key niche in orchestrating the inflammatory process, from initiation to prolongation. This review will describe the current state of knowledge concerning the biology of neuroinflammation, emphasizing mast cell-glia and glia-glia interactions, then conclude with a consideration of how a cell's endogenous mechanisms might be leveraged to provide a therapeutic strategy to target neuroinflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen D Skaper
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Laura Facci
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Morena Zusso
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Pietro Giusti
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
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11
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Scimemi A. Astrocytes and the Warning Signs of Intracerebral Hemorrhagic Stroke. Neural Plast 2018; 2018:7301623. [PMID: 29531526 PMCID: PMC5817320 DOI: 10.1155/2018/7301623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2017] [Accepted: 12/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Two decades into the two thousands, intracerebral hemorrhagic stroke (ICH) continues to reap lives across the globe. In the US, nearly 12,000 people suffer from ICH every year. Half of them survive, but many are left with permanent physical and cognitive disabilities, the severity of which depends on the location and broadness of the brain region affected by the hemorrhage. The ongoing efforts to identify risk factors for hemorrhagic stroke have been instrumental for the development of new medical practices to prevent, aid the recovery and reduce the risk of recurring ICH. Recent efforts approach the study of ICH from a different angle, providing information on how we can limit brain damage by manipulating astrocyte receptors. These results provide a novel understanding of how astrocytes contribute to brain injury and recovery from small ICH. Here, we discuss current knowledge on the risk factors and molecular pathology of ICH and the functional properties of astrocytes and their role in ICH. Last, we discuss candidate astrocyte receptors that may prove to be valuable therapeutic targets to treat ICH. Together, these findings provide basic and clinical scientists useful information for the future development of strategies to improve the detection of small ICH, limit brain damage, and prevent the onset of more severe episodes of brain hemorrhage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annalisa Scimemi
- SUNY Albany, Department of Biology, 1400 Washington Avenue, Albany, NY 12222, USA
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12
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Eggen BJL, Boddeke EWGM, Kooistra SM. Regulation of Microglia Identity from an Epigenetic and Transcriptomic Point of View. Neuroscience 2017; 405:3-13. [PMID: 29247774 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2017.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2017] [Revised: 12/05/2017] [Accepted: 12/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Microglia have long been recognized as the endogenous innate immune elements in the central nervous system (CNS) parenchyma. Besides fulfilling local immune-related functions, they provide cross-talk between the CNS and the immune system at large. In the adult CNS, microglia are involved in maintaining brain homeostasis, modulating synaptic transmission and clearance of apoptotic cells. During embryonic development, microglia are responsible for the removal of supernumerary synapses and neurons, and neuronal network formation. The full scale of their potential abilities has been highlighted by improvements in microglia isolation methods, the development of genetically tagged mouse models, advanced imaging technologies and the application of next-generation sequencing in recent years. Genome-wide expression analysis of relatively pure microglia populations from both mouse and human CNS tissues has thereby greatly contributed to our knowledge of their biology; what defines them under homeostatic conditions and how microglia respond to processes like aging and CNS disease? How and to what degree beneficial functions of microglia can be restored in the aged or diseased brain will be the key issue to be addressed in future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bart J L Eggen
- Department of Neuroscience, Section Medical Physiology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Erik W G M Boddeke
- Department of Neuroscience, Section Medical Physiology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Susanne M Kooistra
- Department of Neuroscience, Section Medical Physiology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands.
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13
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Sild M, Ruthazer ES, Booij L. Major depressive disorder and anxiety disorders from the glial perspective: Etiological mechanisms, intervention and monitoring. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2017; 83:474-488. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.09.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2017] [Revised: 08/08/2017] [Accepted: 09/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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14
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Latta-Mahieu M, Elmer B, Bretteville A, Wang Y, Lopez-Grancha M, Goniot P, Moindrot N, Ferrari P, Blanc V, Schussler N, Brault E, Roudières V, Blanchard V, Yang ZY, Barneoud P, Bertrand P, Roucourt B, Carmans S, Bottelbergs A, Mertens L, Wintmolders C, Larsen P, Hersley C, McGathey T, Racke MM, Liu L, Lu J, O'Neill MJ, Riddell DR, Ebneth A, Nabel GJ, Pradier L. Systemic immune-checkpoint blockade with anti-PD1 antibodies does not alter cerebral amyloid-β burden in several amyloid transgenic mouse models. Glia 2017; 66:492-504. [PMID: 29134678 DOI: 10.1002/glia.23260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2017] [Revised: 10/20/2017] [Accepted: 10/24/2017] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Chronic inflammation represents a central component in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Recent work suggests that breaking immune tolerance by Programmed cell Death-1 (PD1) checkpoint inhibition produces an IFN-γ-dependent systemic immune response, with infiltration of the brain by peripheral myeloid cells and neuropathological as well as functional improvements even in mice with advanced amyloid pathology (Baruch et al., (): Nature Medicine, 22:135-137). Immune checkpoint inhibition was therefore suggested as potential treatment for neurodegenerative disorders when activation of the immune system is appropriate. Because a xenogeneic rat antibody (mAb) was used in the study, whether the effect was specific to PD1 target engagement was uncertain. In the present study we examined whether PD1 immunotherapy can lower amyloid-β pathology in a range of different amyloid transgenic models performed at three pharmaceutical companies with the exact same anti-PD1 isotype and two mouse chimeric variants. Although PD1 immunotherapy stimulated systemic activation of the peripheral immune system, monocyte-derived macrophage infiltration into the brain was not detected, and progression of brain amyloid pathology was not altered. Similar negative results of the effect of PD1 immunotherapy on amyloid brain pathology were obtained in two additional models in two separate institutions. These results show that inhibition of PD1 checkpoint signaling by itself is not sufficient to reduce amyloid pathology and that additional factors might have contributed to previously published results (Baruch et al., (): Nature Medicine, 22:135-137). Until such factors are elucidated, animal model data do not support further evaluation of PD1 checkpoint inhibition as a therapeutic modality for Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Bradford Elmer
- SANOFI NA BT Lab, 270 Albany St, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 02319
| | - Alexis Bretteville
- Janssen Research & Development, a Division of Janssen Pharmaceutica N.V, Beerse, B-2340, Belgium
| | - Yaming Wang
- Lilly Research Laboratories, Indianapolis, Indiana, 46285
| | - Mati Lopez-Grancha
- SANOFI Neurosciences, 1 rue P. Brossolette, Chilly-Mazarin, 91385, France
| | - Philippe Goniot
- SANOFI Neurosciences, 1 rue P. Brossolette, Chilly-Mazarin, 91385, France
| | - Nicolas Moindrot
- SANOFI Neurosciences, 1 rue P. Brossolette, Chilly-Mazarin, 91385, France
| | - Paul Ferrari
- SANOFI, 13 quai Jules Guesde, Vitry/Seine, 94403, France
| | | | - Nathalie Schussler
- SANOFI Neurosciences, 1 rue P. Brossolette, Chilly-Mazarin, 91385, France
| | - Emmanuel Brault
- SANOFI Neurosciences, 1 rue P. Brossolette, Chilly-Mazarin, 91385, France
| | - Valérie Roudières
- SANOFI Neurosciences, 1 rue P. Brossolette, Chilly-Mazarin, 91385, France
| | | | - Zhi-Yong Yang
- SANOFI NA BT Lab, 270 Albany St, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 02319
| | - Pascal Barneoud
- SANOFI Neurosciences, 1 rue P. Brossolette, Chilly-Mazarin, 91385, France
| | - Philippe Bertrand
- SANOFI Neurosciences, 1 rue P. Brossolette, Chilly-Mazarin, 91385, France
| | - Bart Roucourt
- reMYND NV, Gaston Geenslaan 1, Leuven, 3001, Belgium
| | - Sofie Carmans
- reMYND NV, Gaston Geenslaan 1, Leuven, 3001, Belgium
| | - Astrid Bottelbergs
- Janssen Research & Development, a Division of Janssen Pharmaceutica N.V, Beerse, B-2340, Belgium
| | - Liesbeth Mertens
- Janssen Research & Development, a Division of Janssen Pharmaceutica N.V, Beerse, B-2340, Belgium
| | - Cindy Wintmolders
- Janssen Research & Development, a Division of Janssen Pharmaceutica N.V, Beerse, B-2340, Belgium
| | - Peter Larsen
- Janssen Research & Development, a Division of Janssen Pharmaceutica N.V, Beerse, B-2340, Belgium
| | | | - Tyler McGathey
- Lilly Research Laboratories, Indianapolis, Indiana, 46285
| | | | - Ling Liu
- Lilly Research Laboratories, Indianapolis, Indiana, 46285
| | - Jirong Lu
- Lilly Research Laboratories, Indianapolis, Indiana, 46285
| | | | | | - Andreas Ebneth
- Janssen Research & Development, a Division of Janssen Pharmaceutica N.V, Beerse, B-2340, Belgium
| | - Gary J Nabel
- SANOFI NA BT Lab, 270 Albany St, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 02319
| | - Laurent Pradier
- SANOFI Neurosciences, 1 rue P. Brossolette, Chilly-Mazarin, 91385, France
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15
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Liu B, Teschemacher AG, Kasparov S. Astroglia as a cellular target for neuroprotection and treatment of neuro-psychiatric disorders. Glia 2017; 65:1205-1226. [PMID: 28300322 PMCID: PMC5669250 DOI: 10.1002/glia.23136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2016] [Revised: 02/15/2017] [Accepted: 02/17/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Astrocytes are key homeostatic cells of the central nervous system. They cooperate with neurons at several levels, including ion and water homeostasis, chemical signal transmission, blood flow regulation, immune and oxidative stress defense, supply of metabolites and neurogenesis. Astroglia is also important for viability and maturation of stem-cell derived neurons. Neurons critically depend on intrinsic protective and supportive properties of astrocytes. Conversely, all forms of pathogenic stimuli which disturb astrocytic functions compromise neuronal functionality and viability. Support of neuroprotective functions of astrocytes is thus an important strategy for enhancing neuronal survival and improving outcomes in disease states. In this review, we first briefly examine how astrocytic dysfunction contributes to major neurological disorders, which are traditionally associated with malfunctioning of processes residing in neurons. Possible molecular entities within astrocytes that could underpin the cause, initiation and/or progression of various disorders are outlined. In the second section, we explore opportunities enhancing neuroprotective function of astroglia. We consider targeting astrocyte-specific molecular pathways which are involved in neuroprotection or could be expected to have a therapeutic value. Examples of those are oxidative stress defense mechanisms, glutamate uptake, purinergic signaling, water and ion homeostasis, connexin gap junctions, neurotrophic factors and the Nrf2-ARE pathway. We propose that enhancing the neuroprotective capacity of astrocytes is a viable strategy for improving brain resilience and developing new therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beihui Liu
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and NeuroscienceUniversity of Bristol, University WalkBS8 1TDUnited Kingdom
| | - Anja G. Teschemacher
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and NeuroscienceUniversity of Bristol, University WalkBS8 1TDUnited Kingdom
| | - Sergey Kasparov
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and NeuroscienceUniversity of Bristol, University WalkBS8 1TDUnited Kingdom
- Institute for Chemistry and BiologyBaltic Federal UniversityKaliningradRussian Federation
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16
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Mondelli V, Vernon AC, Turkheimer F, Dazzan P, Pariante CM. Brain microglia in psychiatric disorders. Lancet Psychiatry 2017; 4:563-572. [PMID: 28454915 DOI: 10.1016/s2215-0366(17)30101-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 167] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2016] [Revised: 01/30/2017] [Accepted: 01/31/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The role of immune activation in psychiatric disorders has attracted considerable attention over the past two decades, contributing to the rise of a new era for psychiatry. Microglia, the macrophages of the brain, are progressively becoming the main focus of the research in this field. In this Review, we assess the literature on microglia activation across different psychiatric disorders, including post-mortem and in-vivo studies in humans and experimental studies in animals. Although microglia activation has been noted in all types of psychiatric disorder, no association was seen with specific diagnostic categories. Furthermore, the findings from these studies highlight that not all psychiatric patients have microglial activation. Therefore, the cause of the neuroinflammation in these cohorts and its implications are unclear. We discuss psychosocial stress as one of the main factors determining microglial activation in patients with psychiatric disorders, and explore the relevance of these findings for future treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valeria Mondelli
- Department of Psychological Medicine, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK; National Institute for Health Research Mental Health Biomedical Research Centre, South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust and King's College London, London, UK.
| | - Anthony C Vernon
- Department of Basic and Clinical Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK; MRC Centre for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Federico Turkheimer
- Department of Neuroimaging, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK; MRC Centre for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Paola Dazzan
- Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK; National Institute for Health Research Mental Health Biomedical Research Centre, South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust and King's College London, London, UK
| | - Carmine M Pariante
- Department of Psychological Medicine, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK; National Institute for Health Research Mental Health Biomedical Research Centre, South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust and King's College London, London, UK
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17
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Cole KLH, Early JJ, Lyons DA. Drug discovery for remyelination and treatment of MS. Glia 2017; 65:1565-1589. [PMID: 28618073 DOI: 10.1002/glia.23166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2017] [Revised: 04/20/2017] [Accepted: 04/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Glia constitute the majority of the cells in our nervous system, yet there are currently no drugs that target glia for the treatment of disease. Given ongoing discoveries of the many roles of glia in numerous diseases of the nervous system, this is likely to change in years to come. Here we focus on the possibility that targeting the oligodendrocyte lineage to promote regeneration of myelin (remyelination) represents a therapeutic strategy for the treatment of the demyelinating disease multiple sclerosis, MS. We discuss how hypothesis driven studies have identified multiple targets and pathways that can be manipulated to promote remyelination in vivo, and how this work has led to the first ever remyelination clinical trials. We also highlight how recent chemical discovery screens have identified a host of small molecule compounds that promote oligodendrocyte differentiation in vitro. Some of these compounds have also been shown to promote myelin regeneration in vivo, with one already being trialled in humans. Promoting oligodendrocyte differentiation and remyelination represents just one potential strategy for the treatment of MS. The pathology of MS is complex, and its complete amelioration may require targeting multiple biological processes in parallel. Therefore, we present an overview of new technologies and models for phenotypic analyses and screening that can be exploited to study complex cell-cell interactions in in vitro and in vivo systems. Such technological platforms will provide insight into fundamental mechanisms and increase capacities for drug-discovery of relevance to glia and currently intractable disorders of the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katy L H Cole
- Centre for Neuroregeneration, MS Society Centre for Translational Research, Euan MacDonald Centre for Motor Neurone Disease Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, United Kingdom
| | - Jason J Early
- Centre for Neuroregeneration, MS Society Centre for Translational Research, Euan MacDonald Centre for Motor Neurone Disease Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, United Kingdom
| | - David A Lyons
- Centre for Neuroregeneration, MS Society Centre for Translational Research, Euan MacDonald Centre for Motor Neurone Disease Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, United Kingdom
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18
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Madeira MH, Boia R, Ambrósio AF, Santiago AR. Having a Coffee Break: The Impact of Caffeine Consumption on Microglia-Mediated Inflammation in Neurodegenerative Diseases. Mediators Inflamm 2017; 2017:4761081. [PMID: 28250576 PMCID: PMC5307009 DOI: 10.1155/2017/4761081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2016] [Accepted: 01/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Caffeine is the major component of coffee and the most consumed psychostimulant in the world and at nontoxic doses acts as a nonselective adenosine receptor antagonist. Epidemiological evidence suggests that caffeine consumption reduces the risk of several neurological and neurodegenerative diseases. However, despite the beneficial effects of caffeine consumption in human health and behaviour, the mechanisms by which it impacts the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative diseases still remain to be clarified. A promising hypothesis is that caffeine controls microglia-mediated neuroinflammatory response associated with the majority of neurodegenerative conditions. Accordingly, it has been already described that the modulation of adenosine receptors, namely, the A2A receptor, affords neuroprotection through the control of microglia reactivity and neuroinflammation. In this review, we will summarize the main effects of caffeine in the modulation of neuroinflammation in neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria H. Madeira
- Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Life Sciences (IBILI), Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
- CNC.IBILI Consortium, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Raquel Boia
- Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Life Sciences (IBILI), Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
- CNC.IBILI Consortium, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - António F. Ambrósio
- Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Life Sciences (IBILI), Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
- CNC.IBILI Consortium, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- Association for Innovation and Biomedical Research on Light and Image (AIBILI), 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Ana R. Santiago
- Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Life Sciences (IBILI), Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
- CNC.IBILI Consortium, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- Association for Innovation and Biomedical Research on Light and Image (AIBILI), 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
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19
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WIP1 Phosphatase Plays a Critical Neuroprotective Role in Brain Injury Induced by High-Altitude Hypoxic Inflammation. Neurosci Bull 2017; 33:292-298. [PMID: 28097612 DOI: 10.1007/s12264-016-0095-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2016] [Accepted: 11/29/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The hypobaric hypoxic environment in high-altitude areas often aggravates the severity of inflammation and induces brain injury as a consequence. However, the critical genes regulating this process remain largely unknown. The phosphatase wild-type p53-induced phosphatase 1 (WIP1) plays important roles in various physiological and pathological processes, including the regulation of inflammation in normoxia, but its functions in hypoxic inflammation-induced brain injury remain unclear. Here, we established a mouse model of this type of injury and found that WIP1 deficiency augmented the release of inflammatory cytokines in the peripheral circulation and brain tissue, increased the numbers of activated microglia/macrophages in the brain, aggravated cerebral histological lesions, and exacerbated the impairment of motor and cognitive abilities. Collectively, these results provide the first in vivo evidence that WIP1 is a critical neuroprotector against hypoxic inflammation-induced brain injury.
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20
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Abstract
As the immune-competent cells of the brain, microglia play an increasingly important role in maintaining normal brain function. They invade the brain early in development, transform into a highly ramified phenotype, and constantly screen their environment. Microglia are activated by any type of pathologic event or change in brain homeostasis. This activation process is highly diverse and depends on the context and type of the stressor or pathology. Microglia can strongly influence the pathologic outcome or response to a stressor due to the release of a plethora of substances, including cytokines, chemokines, and growth factors. They are the professional phagocytes of the brain and help orchestrate the immunological response by interacting with infiltrating immune cells. We describe here the diversity of microglia phenotypes and their responses in health, aging, and disease. We also review the current literature about the impact of lifestyle on microglia responses and discuss treatment options that modulate microglial phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanne A Wolf
- Cellular Neurosciences, Max Delbrück Centre for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association, Berlin 13092, Germany;
| | - H W G M Boddeke
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen 9713, The Netherlands
| | - Helmut Kettenmann
- Cellular Neurosciences, Max Delbrück Centre for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association, Berlin 13092, Germany;
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