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Liu P, Bo K, Ding M, Fang R. Emergence of Emotion Selectivity in Deep Neural Networks Trained to Recognize Visual Objects. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2023.04.16.537079. [PMID: 37163104 PMCID: PMC10168209 DOI: 10.1101/2023.04.16.537079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Recent neuroimaging studies have shown that the visual cortex plays an important role in representing the affective significance of visual input. The origin of these affect-specific visual representations is debated: they are intrinsic to the visual system versus they arise through reentry from frontal emotion processing structures such as the amygdala. We examined this problem by combining convolutional neural network (CNN) models of the human ventral visual cortex pre-trained on ImageNet with two datasets of affective images. Our results show that (1) in all layers of the CNN models, there were artificial neurons that responded consistently and selectively to neutral, pleasant, or unpleasant images and (2) lesioning these neurons by setting their output to 0 or enhancing these neurons by increasing their gain led to decreased or increased emotion recognition performance respectively. These results support the idea that the visual system may have the intrinsic ability to represent the affective significance of visual input and suggest that CNNs offer a fruitful platform for testing neuroscientific theories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Liu
- J. Crayton Pruitt Family Department of Biomedical Engineering, Herbert Wertheim College of Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, USA
| | - Ke Bo
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, USA
| | - Mingzhou Ding
- J. Crayton Pruitt Family Department of Biomedical Engineering, Herbert Wertheim College of Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Ruogu Fang
- J. Crayton Pruitt Family Department of Biomedical Engineering, Herbert Wertheim College of Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
- Center for Cognitive Aging and Memory, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
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Liu P, Bo K, Ding M, Fang R. Emergence of Emotion Selectivity in Deep Neural Networks Trained to Recognize Visual Objects. PLoS Comput Biol 2024; 20:e1011943. [PMID: 38547053 PMCID: PMC10977720 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1011943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2023] [Accepted: 02/24/2024] [Indexed: 04/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Recent neuroimaging studies have shown that the visual cortex plays an important role in representing the affective significance of visual input. The origin of these affect-specific visual representations is debated: they are intrinsic to the visual system versus they arise through reentry from frontal emotion processing structures such as the amygdala. We examined this problem by combining convolutional neural network (CNN) models of the human ventral visual cortex pre-trained on ImageNet with two datasets of affective images. Our results show that in all layers of the CNN models, there were artificial neurons that responded consistently and selectively to neutral, pleasant, or unpleasant images and lesioning these neurons by setting their output to zero or enhancing these neurons by increasing their gain led to decreased or increased emotion recognition performance respectively. These results support the idea that the visual system may have the intrinsic ability to represent the affective significance of visual input and suggest that CNNs offer a fruitful platform for testing neuroscientific theories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Liu
- J. Crayton Pruitt Family Department of Biomedical Engineering, Herbert Wertheim College of Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire, United States of America
| | - Ke Bo
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire, United States of America
| | - Mingzhou Ding
- J. Crayton Pruitt Family Department of Biomedical Engineering, Herbert Wertheim College of Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Ruogu Fang
- J. Crayton Pruitt Family Department of Biomedical Engineering, Herbert Wertheim College of Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
- Center for Cognitive Aging and Memory, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
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Liu S, Han ZR, Xu J, Wang Q, Gao MM, Weng X, Qin S, Rubin KH. Parenting links to parent-child interbrain synchrony: a real-time fNIRS hyperscanning study. Cereb Cortex 2024; 34:bhad533. [PMID: 38220574 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhad533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2023] [Revised: 12/19/2023] [Accepted: 12/20/2023] [Indexed: 01/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Parent-child interaction is crucial for children's cognitive and affective development. While bio-synchrony models propose that parenting influences interbrain synchrony during interpersonal interaction, the brain-to-brain mechanisms underlying real-time parent-child interactions remain largely understudied. Using functional near-infrared spectroscopy, we investigated interbrain synchrony in 88 parent-child dyads (Mage children = 8.07, 42.0% girls) during a collaborative task (the Etch-a-Sketch, a joint drawing task). Our findings revealed increased interbrain synchrony in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and temporo-parietal areas during interactive, collaborative sessions compared to non-interactive, resting sessions. Linear regression analysis demonstrated that interbrain synchrony in the left temporoparietal junction was associated with enhanced dyadic collaboration, shared positive affect, parental autonomy support, and parental emotional warmth. These associations remained significant after controlling for demographic variables including child age, child gender, and parent gender. Additionally, differences between fathers and mothers were observed. These results highlight the significant association between brain-to-brain synchrony in parent-child dyads, the quality of the parent-child relationship, and supportive parenting behaviors. Interbrain synchrony may serve as a neurobiological marker of real-time parent-child interaction, potentially underscoring the pivotal role of supportive parenting in shaping these interbrain synchrony mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sihan Liu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Applied Experimental Psychology, National Demonstration Center for Experimental Psychology Education, Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Zhuo Rachel Han
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Applied Experimental Psychology, National Demonstration Center for Experimental Psychology Education, Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Jianjie Xu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Applied Experimental Psychology, National Demonstration Center for Experimental Psychology Education, Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Qiandong Wang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Applied Experimental Psychology, National Demonstration Center for Experimental Psychology Education, Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Mengyu Miranda Gao
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Applied Experimental Psychology, National Demonstration Center for Experimental Psychology Education, Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Xiaofang Weng
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Applied Experimental Psychology, National Demonstration Center for Experimental Psychology Education, Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Shaozheng Qin
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning & IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Faculty of Psychology at Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
- Chinese Institute for Brain Research, Beijing 102206, China
| | - Kenneth H Rubin
- University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, United States
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Riadh O, Naoufel O, Ben Rejeb MR, Le Gall D. The role of cognitive estimation in understanding the mental states of others. Cogn Neuropsychol 2023; 40:381-400. [PMID: 38782712 DOI: 10.1080/02643294.2024.2354449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2023] [Accepted: 05/07/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024]
Abstract
Previous studies have emphasized the critical role of the prefrontal cortex in cognitive estimation and theory of mind, however, none of them has questioned the possible role of cognitive estimation processes in understanding the mental states of others. In this study, we compared 30 patients with focal prefrontal cortex damage and 30 control subjects matched by gender, age, and education level on their performances on a cognitive estimation task and two tasks assessing theory of mind: the "Faux-Pas" task and the Reading the Mind in the Eyes task. The results showed that patients were significantly impaired compared with control subjects on both abilities of cognitive estimation and theory of mind. Moreover, regression analyses showed that performance on theory of mind was predicted by the scores on cognitive estimation. Finally, using voxel-based lesion analysis, we identified a partially common bilaterally distributed prefrontal network involved in both these domains centred within the ventral and dorsomedial areas with extension to the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ouerchefani Riadh
- Higher Institute of Human sciences, University of Tunis El-Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
- Univ Angers, Université de Nantes, LPPL, SFR CONFLUENCES, Angers, France
| | | | - Mohamed Riadh Ben Rejeb
- Faculty of Human and Social Science of Tunisia, Department of Psychology, University of Tunis I, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Didier Le Gall
- Univ Angers, Université de Nantes, LPPL, SFR CONFLUENCES, Angers, France
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Henry JD, Grainger SA, von Hippel W. Determinants of Social Cognitive Aging: Predicting Resilience and Risk. Annu Rev Psychol 2023; 74:167-192. [PMID: 35973407 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-psych-033020-121832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
This review focuses on conceptual and empirical research on determinants of social cognitive aging. We present an integrated model [the social cognitive resource (SCoRe) framework] to organize the literature and describe how social cognitive resilience is determined jointly by capacity and motivational resources. We discuss how neurobiological aging, driven by genetic and environmental influences, is associated with broader sensory, neural, and physiological changes that are direct determinants of capacity as well as indirect determinants of motivation via their influence on expectation of loss versus reward and cognitive effort valuation. Research is reviewed that shows how contextual factors, such as relationship status, familiarity, and practice, are fundamental to understanding the availability of both types of resource. We conclude with a discussion of the implications of social cognitive change in late adulthood for everyday social functioning and with recommendations for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie D Henry
- School of Psychology, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Australia; , ,
| | - Sarah A Grainger
- School of Psychology, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Australia; , ,
| | - William von Hippel
- School of Psychology, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Australia; , ,
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Masina F, Pezzetta R, Lago S, Mantini D, Scarpazza C, Arcara G. Disconnection from prediction: A systematic review on the role of right temporoparietal junction in aberrant predictive processing. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2022; 138:104713. [PMID: 35636560 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2022] [Revised: 05/06/2022] [Accepted: 05/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The right temporoparietal junction (rTPJ) is a brain area that plays a critical role in a variety of cognitive functions. Although different theoretical proposals tried to explain the ubiquitous role of rTPJ, recent evidence suggests that rTPJ may be a fundamental cortical region involved in different kinds of predictions. This systematic review aims to better investigate the potential role of rTPJ under a predictive processing perspective, providing an overview of cognitive impairments in neurological patients as the consequence of structural or functional disconnections or damage of rTPJ. Results confirm the involvement of rTPJ across several tasks and neurological pathologies. RTPJ, via its connections with other brain networks, would integrate diverse information and update internal models of the world. Against traditional views, which tend to focus on distinct domains, we argue that the role of rTPJ can be parsimoniously interpreted as a key hub involved in domain-general predictions. This alternative account of rTPJ role in aberrant predictive processing opens different perspectives, stimulating new hypotheses in basic research and clinical contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Sara Lago
- IRCCS San Camillo Hospital, Venice, Italy.
| | - Dante Mantini
- Research Center for Motor Control and Neuroplasticity, KU Leuven, Leuven 3001, Belgium.
| | - Cristina Scarpazza
- IRCCS San Camillo Hospital, Venice, Italy; Department of General Psychology, University of Padua, Padua, Italy.
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Jospe K, Genzer S, Mansano L, Ong D, Zaki J, Soroker N, Perry A. Impaired empathic accuracy following damage to the left hemisphere. Biol Psychol 2022; 172:108380. [PMID: 35714840 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2022.108380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2022] [Revised: 05/25/2022] [Accepted: 06/10/2022] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Failing to understand others accurately can be extremely costly. Unfortunately, events such as strokes can lead to a decline in emotional understanding. Such impairments have been documented in stroke patients and are widely hypothesized to be related to right-hemisphere lesions, as well as to the amygdala, and are thought to be driven in part by attentional biases, for example, less fixation on the eyes. Notably, most of the previous research relied on measurements of emotional understanding from simplified cues, such as facial expressions or prosody. We hypothesize that chronic damage to the left hemisphere could hinder empathic accuracy and emotion recognition in naturalistic social settings that require complex language comprehension, even after a patient regains core language capacities. To assess this notion, we use an empathic accuracy task and eye-tracking measurements with chronic stroke patients with either right (N = 13) or left (N = 11) hemispheric damage-together with aged-matched controls (N = 15)-to explore the patients' understanding of others' affect inferred from stimuli that separates audio and visual cues. While we find that patients with right-hemisphere lesions showed visual attention bias compared to the other two groups, we uncover a disadvantage for patients with left-hemisphere lesions in empathic accuracy, especially when only auditory cues are present. These results suggest that patients with left-hemisphere damage have long-lasting difficulties comprehending real-world complex emotional situations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karine Jospe
- Department of Psychology, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel.
| | - Shir Genzer
- Department of Psychology, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Lihi Mansano
- Loewenstein Rehabilitation Medical Center, Raanana, Israel
| | - Desmond Ong
- Department of Information Systems and Analytics, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Jamil Zaki
- Department of Psychology, Stanford University, California, USA
| | - Nachum Soroker
- Loewenstein Rehabilitation Medical Center, Raanana, Israel; Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Israel
| | - Anat Perry
- Department of Psychology, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel
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Beuriat PA, Cohen-Zimerman S, Smith GNL, Krueger F, Gordon B, Grafman J. Evidence of the role of the cerebellum in cognitive theory of mind using voxel-based lesion mapping. Sci Rep 2022; 12:4999. [PMID: 35322157 PMCID: PMC8943209 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-09104-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2021] [Accepted: 03/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Theory of Mind (ToM) is a social-cognitive skill that allows the understanding of the intentions, beliefs, and desires of others. There is a distinction between affective and cognitive ToM, with evidence showing that these processes rely on partially distinct neural networks. The role of the cerebellum in social cognition has only been rarely explored. In this study, we tested whether the cerebellum is necessary for cognitive and affective ToM performance. We investigated adults with traumatic brain injury (n = 193) and healthy controls (n = 52) using voxel-based lesion-symptom mapping (VLSM) and by measuring the impact on functional connectivity. First, we observed that damage to the cerebellum affected pure Cognitive ToM processing. Further, we found a lateralization effect for the role of the cerebellum in cognitive ToM with participants with left cerebellar injury performing worse than those with right cerebellar injury. Both VLSM and standard statistical analysis provided evidence that left cerebellar Crus I and lobule VI contributed to ToM processing. Lastly, we found that disconnection of the left thalamic projection and the left fronto-striatal fasciculus was associated with poor cognitive ToM performance. Our study is the first to reveal direct causal neuropsychological evidence for a role of the cerebellum in some but not all types of ToM, processing. It reinforces the idea that social cognition relies on a complex network functionally connected through white matter pathways that include the cerebellum. It supports evidence that the neural networks underpinning the different types of ToM can be differentiated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre-Aurélien Beuriat
- Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, Brain Injury Research, Shirley Ryan AbilityLab, Chicago, IL, USA. .,Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA. .,Department of Pediatric Neurosurgery, Hôpital Femme Mère Enfant, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Lyon, France. .,Rockfeller School of Medicine, Claude Bernard University, Lyon, France.
| | - Shira Cohen-Zimerman
- Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, Brain Injury Research, Shirley Ryan AbilityLab, Chicago, IL, USA.,Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Gretchen N L Smith
- Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, Brain Injury Research, Shirley Ryan AbilityLab, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Frank Krueger
- School of Systems Biology, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, USA.,Department of Psychology, University of Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Barry Gordon
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.,Department of Cognitive Science, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Jordan Grafman
- Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, Brain Injury Research, Shirley Ryan AbilityLab, Chicago, IL, USA.,Departments of Neurology, Psychiatry and Cognitive Neurology and Alzheimer's Disease, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
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Campanella F, West T, Dell'Acqua CC, Skrap M. Cognitive and affective theory of mind double dissociation after parietal and temporal lobe tumours. Brain 2021; 145:1818-1829. [PMID: 34919647 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awab441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2021] [Revised: 10/11/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Extensive neuroimaging literature suggests that understanding others' thoughts and emotions engages a wide network encompassing parietal, temporal and medial frontal brain areas. However, the causal role played by these regions in social inferential abilities is still unclear. Moreover very little is known about ToM deficits in brain tumours and whether potential anatomical substrates are comparable to those identified in fMRI literature. This study evaluated the performance of 105 tumour patients, before and immediately after brain surgery, on a cartoon-based non-verbal task evaluating Cognitive (Intention Attribution) and Affective (Emotion Attribution) ToM, as well as a non-social control condition (Causal Inference). Across multiple analyses, we found converging evidence of a double dissociation between patients with right superior parietal damage, selectively impaired in Intention Attribution, and those with right antero-medial temporal lesion, exhibiting deficits only in Emotion attribution. Instead, patients with damage to the frontal cortex were impaired in all kinds of inferential processes, including those from the non-social control conditions. Overall, our data provides novel reliable causal evidence of segregation between different aspects of the ToM network from both the cognitive and also the anatomical point of view.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabio Campanella
- Neurosurgery Unit, Presidio Ospedaliero Universitario "S. Maria della Misericordia", Udine, Italy.,Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, 34100 Trieste, Italy
| | - Thomas West
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, 34100 Trieste, Italy
| | | | - Miran Skrap
- Neurosurgery Unit, Presidio Ospedaliero Universitario "S. Maria della Misericordia", Udine, Italy
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Cohen‐Zimerman S, Khilwani H, Smith GNL, Krueger F, Gordon B, Grafman J. The neural basis for mental state attribution: A voxel-based lesion mapping study. Hum Brain Mapp 2021; 42:65-79. [PMID: 33030812 PMCID: PMC7721243 DOI: 10.1002/hbm.25203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2019] [Revised: 08/14/2020] [Accepted: 08/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability to infer other persons' mental states, "Theory of Mind" (ToM), is a key function of social cognition and is needed when interpreting the intention of others. ToM is associated with a network of functionally related regions, with reportedly key prominent hubs located in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) and the temporoparietal junction (TPJ). The involvement of (mainly the right) TPJ in ToM is based primarily on functional imaging studies that provide correlational evidence for brain-behavior associations. In this lesion study, we test whether certain brain areas are necessary for intact ToM performance. We investigated individuals with penetrating traumatic brain injury (n = 170) and healthy matched controls (n = 30) using voxel-based lesion-symptom mapping (VLSM) and by measuring the impact of a given lesion on white matter disconnections. ToM performance was compared between five patient groups based on lesion location: right TPJ, left TPJ, right dlPFC, left dlPFC, and other lesion, as well as healthy controls. The only group to present with lower ToM abilities was the one with lesions in the right dlPFC. Similarly, VLSM analysis revealed a main cluster in the right frontal middle gyrus and a secondary cluster in the left inferior parietal gyrus. Last, we found that disconnection of the left inferior longitudinal fasciculus and right superior longitudinal fasciculus were associated with poor ToM performance. This study highlights the importance of lesion studies in complementing functional neuroimaging findings and supports the assertion that the right dlPFC is a key region mediating mental state attribution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shira Cohen‐Zimerman
- Cognitive Neuroscience LaboratoryBrain Injury Research, Shirley Ryan AbilityLabChicagoIllinoisUSA
- Departments of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Feinberg School of MedicineNorthwestern UniversityChicagoIllinoisUSA
| | - Harsh Khilwani
- Cognitive Neuroscience LaboratoryBrain Injury Research, Shirley Ryan AbilityLabChicagoIllinoisUSA
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringNorthwestern UniversityChicagoIllinoisUSA
| | - Gretchen N. L. Smith
- Cognitive Neuroscience LaboratoryBrain Injury Research, Shirley Ryan AbilityLabChicagoIllinoisUSA
| | - Frank Krueger
- School of Systems BiologyGeorge Mason UniversityFairfaxVirginiaUSA
- Department of PsychologyUniversity of MannheimMannheimGermany
| | - Barry Gordon
- Department of NeurologyJohns Hopkins University School of MedicineBaltimoreMarylandUSA
- Department of Cognitive ScienceJohns Hopkins UniversityBaltimoreMarylandUSA
| | - Jordan Grafman
- Cognitive Neuroscience LaboratoryBrain Injury Research, Shirley Ryan AbilityLabChicagoIllinoisUSA
- Departments of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Feinberg School of MedicineNorthwestern UniversityChicagoIllinoisUSA
- Department of Neurology, Psychiatry, and Cognitive Neurology & Alzheimer's Disease, Feinberg School of Medicine, Department of PsychologyNorthwestern UniversityChicagoIllinoisUSA
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