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Karagiannis TC, Wall M, Ververis K, Pitsillou E, Tortorella SM, Wood PA, Rafehi H, Khurana I, Maxwell SS, Hung A, Vongsvivut J, El-Osta A. Characterization of K562 cells: uncovering novel chromosomes, assessing transferrin receptor expression, and probing pharmacological therapies. Cell Mol Life Sci 2023; 80:248. [PMID: 37578596 PMCID: PMC11072675 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-023-04905-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2023] [Revised: 07/30/2023] [Accepted: 07/31/2023] [Indexed: 08/15/2023]
Abstract
Human erythroleukemic K562 cells represent the prototypical cell culture model of chronic myeloid leukemia (CML). The cells are pseudo-triploid and positive for the Philadelphia chromosome. Therefore, K562 cells have been widely used for investigating the BCR/ABL1 oncogene and the tyrosine kinase inhibitor, imatinib-mesylate. Further, K562 cells overexpress transferrin receptors (TfR) and have been used as a model for targeting cytotoxic therapies, via receptor-mediated endocytosis. Here, we have characterized K562 cells focusing on the karyotype of cells in prolonged culture, regulation of expression of TfR in wildtype (WT) and doxorubicin-resistant cells, and responses to histone deacetylase inhibition (HDACi). Karyotype analysis indicates novel chromosomes and gene expression analysis suggests a shift of cultured K562 cells away from patient-derived leukemic cells. We confirm the high expression of TfR on K562 cells using immunofluorescence and cell-surface receptor binding radioassays. Importantly, high TfR expression is observed in patient-derived cells, and we highlight the persistent expression of TfR following doxorubicin acquired resistance. Epigenetic analysis indicates that permissive histone acetylation and methylation at the promoter region regulates the transcription of TfR in K562 cells. Finally, we show relatively high expression of HDAC enzymes in K562 cells and demonstrate the chemotoxic effects of HDACi, using the FDA-approved hydroxamic acid, vorinostat. Together with a description of morphology, infrared spectral analysis, and examination of metabolic properties, we provide a comprehensive characterization of K562 cells. Overall, K562 cell culture systems remain widely used for the investigation of novel therapeutics for CML, which is particularly important in cases of imatinib-mesylate resistance.
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MESH Headings
- Humans
- Imatinib Mesylate/pharmacology
- Imatinib Mesylate/therapeutic use
- K562 Cells
- Fusion Proteins, bcr-abl/genetics
- Transferrin
- Pyrimidines/pharmacology
- Drug Resistance, Neoplasm/genetics
- Leukemia, Myelogenous, Chronic, BCR-ABL Positive/drug therapy
- Leukemia, Myelogenous, Chronic, BCR-ABL Positive/genetics
- Leukemia, Myelogenous, Chronic, BCR-ABL Positive/metabolism
- Histone Deacetylases/metabolism
- Doxorubicin/pharmacology
- Doxorubicin/therapeutic use
- Receptors, Transferrin/genetics
- Chromosomes/metabolism
- Mesylates/pharmacology
- Apoptosis
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom C Karagiannis
- Epigenetics in Human Health and Disease Program, Baker Heart and Diabetes Institute, 75 Commercial Road, Prahran, VIC, 3004, Australia.
- Epigenomic Medicine Laboratory at prospED Training, Carlton, VIC, 3053, Australia.
- Department of Clinical Pathology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia.
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia.
- Epigenomic in Human Health and Disease Program, Baker Heart and Diabetes Institute, 75 Commercial Road, Prahran, VIC, 3004, Australia.
| | - Meaghan Wall
- Victorian Cancer Cytogenetics Service, St Vincent's Hospital, Fitzroy, VIC, 3065, Australia
- Department of Medicine, St Vincent's Hospital, University of Melbourne, Fitzroy, VIC, 3065, Australia
| | - Katherine Ververis
- Epigenomic Medicine Laboratory at prospED Training, Carlton, VIC, 3053, Australia
- Department of Clinical Pathology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - Eleni Pitsillou
- Epigenomic Medicine Laboratory at prospED Training, Carlton, VIC, 3053, Australia
- School of Science, STEM College, RMIT University, VIC, 3001, Australia
| | - Stephanie M Tortorella
- Epigenomic Medicine Laboratory at prospED Training, Carlton, VIC, 3053, Australia
- Department of Clinical Pathology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - Peter A Wood
- Epigenomic Medicine Laboratory at prospED Training, Carlton, VIC, 3053, Australia
| | - Haloom Rafehi
- Population Health and Immunity, Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia
| | - Ishant Khurana
- Epigenetics in Human Health and Disease Program, Baker Heart and Diabetes Institute, 75 Commercial Road, Prahran, VIC, 3004, Australia
| | - Scott S Maxwell
- Epigenetics in Human Health and Disease Program, Baker Heart and Diabetes Institute, 75 Commercial Road, Prahran, VIC, 3004, Australia
| | - Andrew Hung
- School of Science, STEM College, RMIT University, VIC, 3001, Australia
| | | | - Assam El-Osta
- Epigenetics in Human Health and Disease Program, Baker Heart and Diabetes Institute, 75 Commercial Road, Prahran, VIC, 3004, Australia
- Department of Diabetes, Central Clinical School, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, 3004, Australia
- Department of Medicine and Therapeutics, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Sha Tin, Hong Kong SAR, China
- Hong Kong Institute of Diabetes and Obesity, Prince of Wales Hospital, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 3/F Lui Che Woo Clinical Sciences Building, 30‑32 Ngan Shing Street, Sha Tin, Hong Kong SAR, China
- Li Ka Shing Institute of Health Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Sha Tin, Hong Kong SAR, China
- Biomedical Laboratory Science, Department of Technology, Faculty of Health, University College Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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Fratz EJ, Hunter GA, Ferreira GC. Expression of murine 5-aminolevulinate synthase variants causes protoporphyrin IX accumulation and light-induced mammalian cell death. PLoS One 2014; 9:e93078. [PMID: 24718052 PMCID: PMC3981678 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0093078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2013] [Accepted: 03/02/2014] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
5-Aminolevulinate synthase (ALAS; EC 2.3.1.37) catalyzes the first committed step of heme biosynthesis in animals. The erythroid-specific ALAS isozyme (ALAS2) is negatively regulated by heme at the level of mitochondrial import and, in its mature form, certain mutations of the murine ALAS2 active site loop result in increased production of protoporphyrin IX (PPIX), the precursor for heme. Importantly, generation of PPIX is a crucial component in the widely used photodynamic therapies (PDT) of cancer and other dysplasias. ALAS2 variants that cause high levels of PPIX accumulation provide a new means of targeted, and potentially enhanced, photosensitization. In order to assess the prospective utility of ALAS2 variants in PPIX production for PDT, K562 human erythroleukemia cells and HeLa human cervical carcinoma cells were transfected with expression plasmids for ALAS2 variants with greater enzymatic activity than the wild-type enzyme. The levels of accumulated PPIX in ALAS2-expressing cells were analyzed using flow cytometry with fluorescence detection. Further, cells expressing ALAS2 variants were subjected to white light treatments (21–22 kLux) for 10 minutes after which cell viability was determined. Transfection of HeLa cells with expression plasmids for murine ALAS2 variants, specifically for those with mutated mitochondrial presequences and a mutation in the active site loop, caused significant cellular accumulation of PPIX, particularly in the membrane. Light treatments revealed that ALAS2 expression results in an increase in cell death in comparison to aminolevulinic acid (ALA) treatment producing a similar amount of PPIX. The delivery of stable and highly active ALAS2 variants has the potential to expand and improve upon current PDT regimes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erica J. Fratz
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, Tampa, Florida, United States of America
| | - Gregory A. Hunter
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, Tampa, Florida, United States of America
| | - Gloria C. Ferreira
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, Tampa, Florida, United States of America
- Department of Chemistry, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Zhang X, Wallace AD, Du P, Lin S, Baccarelli AA, Jiang H, Jafari N, Zheng Y, Xie H, Soares MB, Kibbe WA, Hou L. Genome-wide study of DNA methylation alterations in response to diazinon exposure in vitro. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2012; 34:959-68. [PMID: 22964155 PMCID: PMC3514648 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2012.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2012] [Revised: 07/20/2012] [Accepted: 07/25/2012] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Pesticide exposure has repeatedly been associated with cancers. However, molecular mechanisms are largely undetermined. In this study, we examined whether exposure to diazinon, a common organophosphate that has been associated with cancers, could induce DNA methylation alterations. We conducted genome-wide DNA methylation analyses on DNA samples obtained from human hematopoietic K562 cell exposed to diazinon and ethanol using the Illumina Infinium HumanMethylation27 BeadChip. Bayesian-adjusted t-tests were used to identify differentially methylated gene promoter CpG sites. We identified 1069 CpG sites in 984 genes with significant methylation changes in diazinon-treated cells. Gene ontology analysis demonstrated that some genes are tumor suppressor genes, such as TP53INP1 (3.0-fold, q-value <0.001) and PTEN (2.6-fold, q-value <0.001), some genes are in cancer-related pathways, such as HDAC3 (2.2-fold, q-value=0.002), and some remain functionally unknown. Our results provided direct experimental evidence that diazinon may modify gene promoter DNA methylation levels, which may play a pathological role in cancer development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao Zhang
- Department of Preventive Medicine, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, USA.
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Zhang X, Wallace AD, Du P, Kibbe WA, Jafari N, Xie H, Lin S, Baccarelli A, Soares MB, Hou L. DNA methylation alterations in response to pesticide exposure in vitro. ENVIRONMENTAL AND MOLECULAR MUTAGENESIS 2012; 53:542-9. [PMID: 22847954 PMCID: PMC3753688 DOI: 10.1002/em.21718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2011] [Revised: 06/13/2012] [Accepted: 06/21/2012] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Although pesticides are subject to extensive carcinogenicity testing before regulatory approval, pesticide exposure has repeatedly been associated with various cancers. This suggests that pesticides may cause cancer via nonmutagenicity mechanisms. The present study provides evidence to support the hypothesis that pesticide-induced cancer may be mediated in part by epigenetic mechanisms. We examined whether exposure to seven commonly used pesticides (i.e., fonofos, parathion, terbufos, chlorpyrifos, diazinon, malathion, and phorate) induces DNA methylation alterations in vitro. We conducted genome-wide DNA methylation analyses on DNA samples obtained from the human hematopoietic K562 cell line exposed to ethanol (control) and several organophosphate pesticides (OPs) using the Illumina Infinium HumanMethylation27 BeadChip. Bayesian-adjusted t-tests were used to identify differentially methylated gene promoter CpG sites. In this report, we present our results on three pesticides (fonofos, parathion, and terbufos) that clustered together based on principle component analysis and hierarchical clustering. These three pesticides induced similar methylation changes in the promoter regions of 712 genes, while also exhibiting their own OP-specific methylation alterations. Functional analysis of methylation changes specific to each OP, or common to all three OPs, revealed that differential methylation was associated with numerous genes that are involved in carcinogenesis-related processes. Our results provide experimental evidence that pesticides may modify gene promoter DNA methylation levels, suggesting that epigenetic mechanisms may contribute to pesticide-induced carcinogenesis. Further studies in other cell types and human samples are required, as well as determining the impact of these methylation changes on gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao Zhang
- Department of Preventive Medicine, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Andrew D. Wallace
- Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Pan Du
- Department of Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, Genentech Inc., South San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Warren A. Kibbe
- Northwestern University Biomedical Informatics Center (NUBIC), Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Nadereh Jafari
- Center for Genetic Medicine, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Hehuang Xie
- Falk Brain Tumor Center, Cancer Biology and Epigenomics Program, Children’s Memorial Research Center, Department of Pediatrics, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Simon Lin
- Biomedical Informatics Research Center, Marshfield Clinic Research Foundation, Marshfield, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Andrea Baccarelli
- Exposure, Epidemiology and Risk Program, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Marcelo Bento Soares
- Falk Brain Tumor Center, Cancer Biology and Epigenomics Program, Children’s Memorial Research Center, Department of Pediatrics, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Lifang Hou
- Department of Preventive Medicine, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, USA
- The Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, USA
- For reprints and all correspondence: Lifang Hou Department of Preventive Medicine Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University 680 North Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, Illinois 60611 Phone: (312) 503-4798; Fax: (312) 908-9588
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Abstract
Neuroglobin is a newly identified vertebrate globin that binds O(2) and is expressed in cerebral neurons. We found recently that neuronal expression of neuroglobin is stimulated by hypoxia and ischemia and protects neurons from hypoxic injury. Here we report that, like hemoglobin and myoglobin, neuroglobin expression can also be induced by hemin. Induction was concentration dependent and time dependent, with maximal (about 4-fold) increases in neuroglobin mRNA and protein levels occurring with 50 microM hemin and at 8 to 24 hours. The inductive effect of hemin was attenuated by the protein kinase G inhibitor KT5823 and the soluble guanylate cyclase inhibitor LY83583, was mimicked by treatment with 8-bromo-cyclic guanosine 3',5'-monophosphate, and was accompanied by a greater than 10-fold increase in cGMP levels, suggesting that it is mediated through protein kinase G and soluble guanylate cyclase. In contrast, hypoxic induction of neuroglobin was blocked by the mitogen-activated protein kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase kinase inhibitor PD98059, indicating that hemin and hypoxia regulate neuroglobin expression by different mechanisms. These results provide evidence for regulation of neuroglobin expression by at least 2 signal transduction pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yonghua Zhu
- Buck Institute for Age Research, Novato, CA 94945, USA
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