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Götz ME, Eisenreich A, Frenzel J, Sachse B, Schäfer B. Occurrence of Alkenylbenzenes in Plants: Flavours and Possibly Toxic Plant Metabolites. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 12:plants12112075. [PMID: 37299054 DOI: 10.3390/plants12112075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2023] [Revised: 05/12/2023] [Accepted: 05/18/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Alkenylbenzenes are naturally occurring secondary plant metabolites. While some of them are proven genotoxic carcinogens, other derivatives need further evaluation to clarify their toxicological properties. Furthermore, data on the occurrence of various alkenylbenzenes in plants, and especially in food products, are still limited. In this review, we tempt to give an overview of the occurrence of potentially toxic alkenylbenzenes in essential oils and extracts from plants used for flavoring purposes of foods. A focus is layed on widely known genotoxic alkenylbenzenes, such as safrole, methyleugenol, and estragole. However, essential oils and extracts that contain other alkenylbenzenes and are also often used for flavoring purposes are considered. This review may re-raise awareness of the need for quantitative occurrence data for alkenylbenzenes in certain plants but especially in final plant food supplements, processed foods, and flavored beverages as the basis for a more reliable exposure assessment of alkenylbenzenes in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario E Götz
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Department Food Safety, Max-Dohrn-Strasse 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany
| | - Andreas Eisenreich
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Department Food Safety, Max-Dohrn-Strasse 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany
| | - Janine Frenzel
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Department Food Safety, Max-Dohrn-Strasse 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany
| | - Benjamin Sachse
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Department Food Safety, Max-Dohrn-Strasse 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany
| | - Bernd Schäfer
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Department Food Safety, Max-Dohrn-Strasse 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany
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2
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Myristicin and Elemicin: Potentially Toxic Alkenylbenzenes in Food. Foods 2022; 11:foods11131988. [PMID: 35804802 PMCID: PMC9265716 DOI: 10.3390/foods11131988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2022] [Revised: 06/22/2022] [Accepted: 07/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Alkenylbenzenes represent a group of naturally occurring substances that are synthesized as secondary metabolites in various plants, including nutmeg and basil. Many of the alkenylbenzene-containing plants are common spice plants and preparations thereof are used for flavoring purposes. However, many alkenylbenzenes are known toxicants. For example, safrole and methyleugenol were classified as genotoxic carcinogens based on extensive toxicological evidence. In contrast, reliable toxicological data, in particular regarding genotoxicity, carcinogenicity, and reproductive toxicity is missing for several other structurally closely related alkenylbenzenes, such as myristicin and elemicin. Moreover, existing data on the occurrence of these substances in various foods suffer from several limitations. Together, the existing data gaps regarding exposure and toxicity cause difficulty in evaluating health risks for humans. This review gives an overview on available occurrence data of myristicin, elemicin, and other selected alkenylbenzenes in certain foods. Moreover, the current knowledge on the toxicity of myristicin and elemicin in comparison to their structurally related and well-characterized derivatives safrole and methyleugenol, especially with respect to their genotoxic and carcinogenic potential, is discussed. Finally, this article focuses on existing data gaps regarding exposure and toxicity currently impeding the evaluation of adverse health effects potentially caused by myristicin and elemicin.
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Lanari D, Zadra C, Negro F, Njem R, Marcotullio MC. Influence of choline chloride-based NADES on the composition of Myristica fragrans Houtt. essential oil. Heliyon 2022; 8:e09531. [PMID: 35663759 PMCID: PMC9156872 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e09531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Revised: 04/23/2022] [Accepted: 05/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural deep eutectic solvents (NADES) have emerged as green extracting solvents in recent years. In this study, a variety of choline chloride (ChCl)-based natural deep eutectic solvents (NADES) were used as co-solvents for the hydrodistillation of nutmeg with the aim to obtain M. fragrans essential oil (EO) in higher yield and with a lower content of toxic phenylpropenoids (e.g. myristicin and safrole). The influence of ChCl-based NADES as additives in the hydrodistillation process was studied. The results showed that NADES additives improved the yield of the extracted essential oil and influenced its composition leading to a decrease in toxic phenylpropenoids. Best results were achieved by using ChCl-CA NADES ultrasound-assisted pretreatment coupled with traditional 2 h Clevenger hydrodistillation that increased the yield of the EO from 0.98% (traditional) to 1.41% and a decrease of the phenylpropenoids amount in the essential oil.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Claudia Zadra
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmaceutiche, Università degli Studi di Perugia, Via Fabretti, 48-06123, Perugia, Italy
| | - Francesca Negro
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmaceutiche, Università degli Studi di Perugia, Via Fabretti, 48-06123, Perugia, Italy
| | - Rima Njem
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmaceutiche, Università degli Studi di Perugia, Via Fabretti, 48-06123, Perugia, Italy
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4
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Alkenylbenzenes in Foods: Aspects Impeding the Evaluation of Adverse Health Effects. Foods 2021; 10:foods10092139. [PMID: 34574258 PMCID: PMC8469824 DOI: 10.3390/foods10092139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2021] [Revised: 09/03/2021] [Accepted: 09/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Alkenylbenzenes are naturally occurring secondary plant metabolites, primarily present in different herbs and spices, such as basil or fennel seeds. Thus, alkenylbenzenes, such as safrole, methyleugenol, and estragole, can be found in different foods, whenever these herbs and spices (or extracts thereof) are used for food production. In particular, essential oils or other food products derived from the aforementioned herbs and spices, such as basil-containing pesto or plant food supplements, are often characterized by a high content of alkenylbenzenes. While safrole or methyleugenol are known to be genotoxic and carcinogenic, the toxicological relevance of other alkenylbenzenes (e.g., apiol) regarding human health remains widely unclear. In this review, we will briefly summarize and discuss the current knowledge and the uncertainties impeding a conclusive evaluation of adverse effects to human health possibly resulting from consumption of foods containing alkenylbenzenes, especially focusing on the genotoxic compounds, safrole, methyleugenol, and estragole.
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Rivera-Pérez A, Romero-González R, Garrido Frenich A. Determination and Occurrence of Alkenylbenzenes, Pyrrolizidine and Tropane Alkaloids in Spices, Herbs, Teas, and Other Plant-derived Food Products Using Chromatographic Methods: Review from 2010–2020. FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/87559129.2021.1929300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Araceli Rivera-Pérez
- Research Group “Analytical Chemistry of Contaminants”, Department of Chemistry and Physics, Research Centre for Mediterranean Intensive Agrosystems and Agrifood Biotechnology (CIAIMBITAL), Agrifood Campus of International Excellence (Ceia3), University of Almeria, Almeria, Spain
| | - Roberto Romero-González
- Research Group “Analytical Chemistry of Contaminants”, Department of Chemistry and Physics, Research Centre for Mediterranean Intensive Agrosystems and Agrifood Biotechnology (CIAIMBITAL), Agrifood Campus of International Excellence (Ceia3), University of Almeria, Almeria, Spain
| | - Antonia Garrido Frenich
- Research Group “Analytical Chemistry of Contaminants”, Department of Chemistry and Physics, Research Centre for Mediterranean Intensive Agrosystems and Agrifood Biotechnology (CIAIMBITAL), Agrifood Campus of International Excellence (Ceia3), University of Almeria, Almeria, Spain
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6
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Ni YL, Shen HT, Lee MW, Yeh KL, Chiang CY, Kuan YH. Safrole-induced expression of proinflammatory responses is associated with phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinase family and the nuclear factor-κB/inhibitor of κB pathway in macrophages. Tzu Chi Med J 2020; 32:344-350. [PMID: 33163379 PMCID: PMC7605287 DOI: 10.4103/tcmj.tcmj_78_20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2020] [Revised: 05/20/2020] [Accepted: 06/06/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Objective: Safrole, also called shikimol and Sassafras, is the carcinogenic and phenylpropanoid compound extracted from Sassafras tree and anise, betel, and camphor. Moreover, a high concentration of safrole can be occur in the saliva because of betel nut or areca quid chewing which a common habit observed in Southern and Southeastern Asia. Notably, macrophages are crucial phagocytic cells of the immune system. Nonetheless, to date, no evidence has been reported regarding safrole-induced proinflammatory response and the corresponding mechanism in macrophages. Materials and Methods: In the present study, the cytokines expression, NO generation, protein phosphorylation, and expression were assessed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, Griess reagent, and Western blot assay, respectively. Results: In this study, we determined that safrole induces the generation of nitric oxide and proinflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-1β, and IL-6 in RAW264.7 macrophages in a concentration-dependent manner. Furthermore, inhibitor of κB (IκB) degradation was caused by safrole in a concentration-dependent manner. In addition, the phosphorylation of nuclear factor (NF)-κB and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) family, including p38 MAPK, extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), and c-Jun N-terminal kinase, was induced by safrole began to increase at 10 μM and attained a plateau at 100 μM. Conclusion: These results indicated that safrole induces the expression of proinflammatory responses in macrophages through the NF-κB/IκB pathway and its upstream factor, MAPK family phosphorylation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yung-Lun Ni
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Taichung Tzu Chi Hospital, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Huan-Ting Shen
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Taichung Tzu Chi Hospital, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan.,Institute of Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Immunology, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Min-Wei Lee
- Graduate Institute of Microbiology and Public Health, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Kun-Lin Yeh
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Chen-Yu Chiang
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Hsiang Kuan
- Department of Pharmacy, Chung Shan Medical University Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan.,Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
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7
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Rivera-Pérez A, López-Ruiz R, Romero-González R, Garrido Frenich A. A new strategy based on gas chromatography–high resolution mass spectrometry (GC–HRMS-Q-Orbitrap) for the determination of alkenylbenzenes in pepper and its varieties. Food Chem 2020; 321:126727. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.126727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2019] [Revised: 03/17/2020] [Accepted: 03/31/2020] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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8
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Prinsloo G, Steffens F, Vervoort J, Rietjens IM. Risk assessment of herbal supplements containing ingredients that are genotoxic and carcinogenic. Crit Rev Toxicol 2019; 49:567-579. [DOI: 10.1080/10408444.2019.1686456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gerhard Prinsloo
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, Netherlands
- Department of Agriculture and Animal Health, College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, University of South Africa, Florida, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Francois Steffens
- Department of Consumer Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa
| | - Jacques Vervoort
- Department of Agriculture and Animal Health, College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, University of South Africa, Florida, Johannesburg, South Africa
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, Wageningen University, Wageningen, Netherlands
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Costa JG, Vidovic B, Saraiva N, do Céu Costa M, Del Favero G, Marko D, Oliveira NG, Fernandes AS. Contaminants: a dark side of food supplements? Free Radic Res 2019; 53:1113-1135. [PMID: 31500469 DOI: 10.1080/10715762.2019.1636045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Food supplements (FS) are often consumed as one of the strategies to fight ageing-associated pathologies, especially in the case of oxidative stress-related diseases. Despite the popularity of FS, some concerns about their quality and safety have been raised, especially regarding the presence of contaminants. This paper reviews and discusses the occurrence of contaminants in marketed samples of FS in the last two decades, considering both scientific literature and notifications registered on RASFF portal. The most relevant classes of contaminants were included namely metals, toxins, pesticides, dioxins and PCBs, as well as pharmacologically active ingredients. Variable amounts of contaminants were reported in a significant number of commercially available FS. Although the presence of contaminants does not necessarily mean that their levels exceed the regulatory limits or that the FS intake constitutes a risk to human health, it alerts for the need to further monitor FS safety. The evaluation of the risk associated to the consumption of FS, especially in the elderly population, is particularly challenging due to the frequent exposure to multiple toxicants and to different exposure sources, as well as due to possible pre-existing diseases and respective therapeutics. Therefore, improved quality control procedures and monitoring programs should be pursued in order to avoid undesirable products and assure the safety of FS.
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Affiliation(s)
- João Guilherme Costa
- CBIOS, Universidade Lusófona Research Center for Biosciences & Health Technologies, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Bojana Vidovic
- Department of Bromatology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Nuno Saraiva
- CBIOS, Universidade Lusófona Research Center for Biosciences & Health Technologies, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Maria do Céu Costa
- CBIOS, Universidade Lusófona Research Center for Biosciences & Health Technologies, Lisboa, Portugal.,ASAE/ONRE, National Observatory for Emerging Risks, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Giorgia Del Favero
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Doris Marko
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Nuno G Oliveira
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Ana Sofia Fernandes
- CBIOS, Universidade Lusófona Research Center for Biosciences & Health Technologies, Lisboa, Portugal.,ASAE/ONRE, National Observatory for Emerging Risks, Lisboa, Portugal
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10
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Triple quadrupole mass spectrometry comparative DNA adductomics of Hep G2 cells following exposure to safrole. Toxicol Lett 2019; 300:92-104. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2018.10.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2018] [Revised: 10/12/2018] [Accepted: 10/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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11
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Brickel JA, Matulka RA, Burdock GA. The explosion in the use of natural substances and the need for new comprehensive risk assessments. Curr Opin Food Sci 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cofs.2018.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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12
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A Design of Experiment Approach for Ionic Liquid-Based Extraction of Toxic Components-Minimized Essential Oil from Myristica fragrans Houtt. Fruits †. Molecules 2018; 23:molecules23112817. [PMID: 30380729 PMCID: PMC6278261 DOI: 10.3390/molecules23112817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2018] [Revised: 10/26/2018] [Accepted: 10/27/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The effect of the addition of ionic liquids (ILs) during the hydrodistillation of Myristica fragrans Houtt. (nutmeg) essential oil was studied. The essential oil of M. fragrans is characterized by the presence of terpenes, terpenoids, and of phenylpropanoids, such as methyl eugenol and safrole, that are regarded as genotoxic and carcinogenic. The aim of the work was to determine the best ionic liquid to improve the yield of the extraction of M. fragrans essential oil and decrease the extraction of toxic phenylpropanoids. Six ILs, namely 1,3-dimethylimidazolium chloride (1), 1,3-dimethylimidazolium dimethylphosphate (2), 1-(2-hydroxyethyl)-3-methylimidazolium chloride (3), 1-(2-hydroxyethyl)-3-methylimidazolium dimethylphosphate (4), 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride (5), and 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium dimethylphosphate (6), were prepared by previously reported, innovative methods and then tested. An experimental design was used to optimize the extraction yield and to decrease the phenylpropanoids percentage using the synthesized ILs. The influence of the molarity of ILs was also studied. MODDE 12 software established 0.5 M 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride as the best co-solvent for the hydrodistillation of M. fragrans essential oil.
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13
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Prinsloo G, Nogemane N, Street R. The use of plants containing genotoxic carcinogens as foods and medicine. Food Chem Toxicol 2018; 116:27-39. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2018.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2018] [Revised: 03/28/2018] [Accepted: 04/03/2018] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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14
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Suparmi S, Widiastuti D, Wesseling S, Rietjens IMCM. Natural occurrence of genotoxic and carcinogenic alkenylbenzenes in Indonesian jamu and evaluation of consumer risks. Food Chem Toxicol 2018; 118:53-67. [PMID: 29727721 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2018.04.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2018] [Revised: 04/24/2018] [Accepted: 04/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The consumer risks of jamu, Indonesian traditional herbal medicines, was assessed focussing on the presence of alkenylbenzene containing botanical ingredients. Twenty-three out of 25 samples contained alkenylbenzenes at levels ranging from 3.8 to 440 μg/kg, with methyleugenol being the most frequently encountered alkenylbenzene. The estimated daily intake (EDI) resulting from jamu consumption was estimated to amount to 0.2-171 μg/kg bw/day for individual alkenylbenzenes, to 0.9-203 μg/kg bw/day when adding up all alkenylbenzenes detected, and to 0.9-551 μg/kg bw/day when expressed in methyleugenol equivalents using interim relative potency (REP) factors. The margin of exposure (MOE) values obtained were generally <10,000 indicating a priority for risk management when assuming daily consumption during a lifetime. Using Haber's rule it was estimated that two weeks consumption of these jamu only once would not raise a concern (MOE >10,000). However, when considering use for two weeks every year during a lifetime, 5 samples still raise a concern. It is concluded that the consumption of alkenylbenzene containing jamu can be of concern especially when consumed on a daily basis for longer periods of time on a regular basis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suparmi Suparmi
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University and Research, Stippeneng 4, 6708 WE, Wageningen, The Netherlands; Department of Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Islam Sultan Agung, Jl. Raya Kaligawe KM 4, 50112, Semarang, Indonesia.
| | - Diana Widiastuti
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University and Research, Stippeneng 4, 6708 WE, Wageningen, The Netherlands; The National Agency for Drug and Food Control (NADFC), Jl. Percetakan Negara No.23, 10560, Jakarta, Indonesia
| | - Sebastiaan Wesseling
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University and Research, Stippeneng 4, 6708 WE, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Ivonne M C M Rietjens
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University and Research, Stippeneng 4, 6708 WE, Wageningen, The Netherlands
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Risk assessment of genotoxic and carcinogenic alkenylbenzenes in botanical containing products present on the Chinese market. Food Chem Toxicol 2018; 115:344-357. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2018.03.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2017] [Revised: 03/12/2018] [Accepted: 03/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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