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Ruszkiewicz J, Endig L, Güver E, Bürkle A, Mangerich A. Life-Cycle-Dependent Toxicities of Mono- and Bifunctional Alkylating Agents in the 3R-Compliant Model Organism C. elegans. Cells 2023; 12:2728. [PMID: 38067156 PMCID: PMC10705807 DOI: 10.3390/cells12232728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2023] [Revised: 11/20/2023] [Accepted: 11/24/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) is gaining recognition and importance as an organismic model for toxicity testing in line with the 3Rs principle (replace, reduce, refine). In this study, we explored the use of C. elegans to examine the toxicities of alkylating sulphur mustard analogues, specifically the monofunctional agent 2-chloroethyl-ethyl sulphide (CEES) and the bifunctional, crosslinking agent mechlorethamine (HN2). We exposed wild-type worms at different life cycle stages (from larvae L1 to adulthood day 10) to CEES or HN2 and scored their viability 24 h later. The susceptibility of C. elegans to CEES and HN2 paralleled that of human cells, with HN2 exhibiting higher toxicity than CEES, reflected in LC50 values in the high µM to low mM range. Importantly, the effects were dependent on the worms' developmental stage as well as organismic age: the highest susceptibility was observed in L1, whereas the lowest was observed in L4 worms. In adult worms, susceptibility to alkylating agents increased with advanced age, especially to HN2. To examine reproductive effects, L4 worms were exposed to CEES and HN2, and both the offspring and the percentage of unhatched eggs were assessed. Moreover, germline apoptosis was assessed by using ced-1p::GFP (MD701) worms. In contrast to concentrations that elicited low toxicities to L4 worms, CEES and HN2 were highly toxic to germline cells, manifesting as increased germline apoptosis as well as reduced offspring number and percentage of eggs hatched. Again, HN2 exhibited stronger effects than CEES. Compound specificity was also evident in toxicities to dopaminergic neurons-HN2 exposure affected expression of dopamine transporter DAT-1 (strain BY200) at lower concentrations than CEES, suggesting a higher neurotoxic effect. Mechanistically, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) has been linked to mustard agent toxicities. Therefore, the NAD+-dependent system was investigated in the response to CEES and HN2 treatment. Overall NAD+ levels in worm extracts were revealed to be largely resistant to mustard exposure except for high concentrations, which lowered the NAD+ levels in L4 worms 24 h post-treatment. Interestingly, however, mutant worms lacking components of NAD+-dependent pathways involved in genome maintenance, namely pme-2, parg-2, and sirt-2.1 showed a higher and compound-specific susceptibility, indicating an active role of NAD+ in genotoxic stress response. In conclusion, the present results demonstrate that C. elegans represents an attractive model to study the toxicology of alkylating agents, which supports its use in mechanistic as well as intervention studies with major strength in the possibility to analyze toxicities at different life cycle stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Ruszkiewicz
- Molecular Toxicology Group, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, 78457 Konstanz, Germany (A.B.)
| | - Lisa Endig
- Molecular Toxicology Group, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, 78457 Konstanz, Germany (A.B.)
| | - Ebru Güver
- Molecular Toxicology Group, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, 78457 Konstanz, Germany (A.B.)
| | - Alexander Bürkle
- Molecular Toxicology Group, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, 78457 Konstanz, Germany (A.B.)
| | - Aswin Mangerich
- Molecular Toxicology Group, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, 78457 Konstanz, Germany (A.B.)
- Nutritional Toxicology, Institute Nutritional Science, University of Potsdam, 14469 Potsdam, Germany
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2
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Ruszkiewicz J, Papatheodorou Y, Jäck N, Melzig J, Eble F, Pirker A, Thomann M, Haberer A, Rothmiller S, Bürkle A, Mangerich A. NAD + Acts as a Protective Factor in Cellular Stress Response to DNA Alkylating Agents. Cells 2023; 12:2396. [PMID: 37830610 PMCID: PMC10572126 DOI: 10.3390/cells12192396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2023] [Revised: 09/20/2023] [Accepted: 09/25/2023] [Indexed: 10/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Sulfur mustard (SM) and its derivatives are potent genotoxic agents, which have been shown to trigger the activation of poly (ADP-ribose) polymerases (PARPs) and the depletion of their substrate, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+). NAD+ is an essential molecule involved in numerous cellular pathways, including genome integrity and DNA repair, and thus, NAD+ supplementation might be beneficial for mitigating mustard-induced (geno)toxicity. In this study, the role of NAD+ depletion and elevation in the genotoxic stress response to SM derivatives, i.e., the monofunctional agent 2-chloroethyl-ethyl sulfide (CEES) and the crosslinking agent mechlorethamine (HN2), was investigated with the use of NAD+ booster nicotinamide riboside (NR) and NAD+ synthesis inhibitor FK866. The effects were analyzed in immortalized human keratinocytes (HaCaT) or monocyte-like cell line THP-1. In HaCaT cells, NR supplementation, increased NAD+ levels, and elevated PAR response, however, did not affect ATP levels or DNA damage repair, nor did it attenuate long- and short-term cytotoxicities. On the other hand, the depletion of cellular NAD+ via FK866 sensitized HaCaT cells to genotoxic stress, particularly CEES exposure, whereas NR supplementation, by increasing cellular NAD+ levels, rescued the sensitizing FK866 effect. Intriguingly, in THP-1 cells, the NR-induced elevation of cellular NAD+ levels did attenuate toxicity of the mustard compounds, especially upon CEES exposure. Together, our results reveal that NAD+ is an important molecule in the pathomechanism of SM derivatives, exhibiting compound-specificity. Moreover, the cell line-dependent protective effects of NR are indicative of system-specificity of the application of this NAD+ booster.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Ruszkiewicz
- Molecular Toxicology Group, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, 78457 Konstanz, Germany
| | - Ylea Papatheodorou
- Molecular Toxicology Group, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, 78457 Konstanz, Germany
| | - Nathalie Jäck
- Molecular Toxicology Group, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, 78457 Konstanz, Germany
| | - Jasmin Melzig
- Molecular Toxicology Group, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, 78457 Konstanz, Germany
| | - Franziska Eble
- Molecular Toxicology Group, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, 78457 Konstanz, Germany
| | - Annika Pirker
- Molecular Toxicology Group, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, 78457 Konstanz, Germany
| | - Marius Thomann
- Molecular Toxicology Group, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, 78457 Konstanz, Germany
| | - Andreas Haberer
- Molecular Toxicology Group, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, 78457 Konstanz, Germany
| | - Simone Rothmiller
- Bundeswehr Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, 80937 Munich, Germany;
| | - Alexander Bürkle
- Molecular Toxicology Group, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, 78457 Konstanz, Germany
| | - Aswin Mangerich
- Molecular Toxicology Group, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, 78457 Konstanz, Germany
- Nutritional Toxicology, Institute Nutritional Science, University of Potsdam, 14469 Potsdam, Germany
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3
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Li XS, Yang FC, Yan L, Wu JN, Yuan L, Yang Y, Liu SL. Simultaneous Quantification of Biomarkers for Bis-(2-chloroethyl) Sulfide and 1,2-Bis(2-chloroethylthio) Ethane Exposure in Human Urine at Trace Exposure Levels by Gas Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry via Simultaneous Incubation and Extraction. Chem Res Toxicol 2023; 36:1549-1559. [PMID: 37657424 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.3c00170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/03/2023]
Abstract
Sulfur mustard [HD; bis-(2-chloroethyl) sulfide] and other analogues are a kind of highly toxic vesicant and have been prohibited by the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) since 1997. Exposures to HD could generate several adducts in the plasma and hydrolysis products in the urine, which are widely applied as biomarkers to identify HD exposure in forensic analysis. Several methods have been developed for the detection of related biomarkers. However, most methods are based on complex derivatization, and not enough attention is paid to HD analogues. A modified and convenient analytical method reported herein includes simultaneous incubation and organic solvent extraction. The biomarkers such as thiodiglycol and 1,2-bis (2-hydroxyethylthio) are transferred to HD and 1,2-bis(2-chloroethylthio) ethane via hydrochloric acid at the appropriate temperature. The analytes are analyzed by gas chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS) with 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfide (2-CEES) applied as the internal standard. The interday and intraday study according to FDA rules has been achieved to evaluate the accuracy and precision of the method. The two targets are detected with a good linearity (R2 > 0.99) in the concentration ranges from 5 to 1000 ng/mL and 10 to 1000 ng/mL, with small relative standard deviations (RSD ≤6.62% and RSD ≤6.93%) and favorable recoveries between 90.3 and 107.3% and between 89.4 and 108.7%, respectively. The established method can be used for retrospective detection of sulfur mustards in biological samples and successfully applied in the biomedical proficiency testing organized by the OPCW.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Sen Li
- State Key Laboratory of NBC Protection for Civilian, Beijing 102205, China
| | - Fang-Chao Yang
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University of Sciences & Technology, Nanjing 210094, P. R. China
| | - Long Yan
- State Key Laboratory of NBC Protection for Civilian, Beijing 102205, China
| | - Ji-Na Wu
- State Key Laboratory of NBC Protection for Civilian, Beijing 102205, China
| | - Ling Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of NBC Protection for Civilian, Beijing 102205, China
| | - Yang Yang
- State Key Laboratory of NBC Protection for Civilian, Beijing 102205, China
| | - Shi-Lei Liu
- State Key Laboratory of NBC Protection for Civilian, Beijing 102205, China
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4
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Soleimani M, Baharnoori SM, Cheraqpour K, Momenaei B, Mirshahi R, Chow C, Shahjahan S, Nguyen T, Ashraf MJ, Huang X, Koganti R, Cheraghpour M, Ghassemi M, Djalilian AR. Cellular senescence implication in mustard keratopathy. Exp Eye Res 2023:109565. [PMID: 37406956 PMCID: PMC10392783 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2023.109565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Revised: 06/28/2023] [Accepted: 07/01/2023] [Indexed: 07/07/2023]
Abstract
Mustard agents are vesicants that were used in warfare multiple times. They are potent alkylating agents that activate cellular pathways of apoptosis, increase oxidative stress, and induce inflammation. Eyes are particularly susceptible to mustard exposure with a wide range of ocular surface damage. Three main categories of mustard-related eye injuries are acute, chronic, and delayed-onset manifestations. Mustard keratopathy (MK) is a known complication characterized by corneal opacification, ulceration, thinning, and neovascularization that can lead to severe vision loss and discomfort. Recently, a few reports demonstrated the role of senescence induction as a new pathological mechanism in mustard-related injuries that could affect wound healing. We ran the first murine model of delayed-onset MK and nitrogen mustard-induced senescence, evaluating the pathological signs of senescence in the cornea using beta-galactosidase staining. Our results suggest that nitrogen mustard exposure causes senescence in the corneal cells, which could be the underlying mechanism for chronic and late-onset ocular surface damage. We also found a significant correlation between the percentage of positive beta-galactosidase staining and the degree of fibrosis in the cornea. This provides valuable insight into the possible role of anti-senescence drugs in the near future for accelerating corneal healing and restricting fibrosis in patients with mustard keratopathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Soleimani
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA; Eye Research Center, Farabi Eye Hospital, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Seyed Mahbod Baharnoori
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA; Eye Research Center, Farabi Eye Hospital, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Kasra Cheraqpour
- Eye Research Center, Farabi Eye Hospital, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Bita Momenaei
- Wills Eye Hospital, Mid Atlantic Retina, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
| | - Reza Mirshahi
- Eye Research Center, The Five Senses Health Institute, Rasoul Akram Hospital, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Collin Chow
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.
| | | | - Tara Nguyen
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.
| | - Mohammad Javad Ashraf
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.
| | - Xiaoke Huang
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.
| | - Raghuram Koganti
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.
| | - Makan Cheraghpour
- Basic and Molecular Epidemiology of Gastrointestinal Disorders Research Center, Research Institute for Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Mahmood Ghassemi
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.
| | - Ali R Djalilian
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.
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Bosholm CC, Zhu H, Yu P, Cheng K, Murphy SV, McNutt PM, Zhang Y. Therapeutic Benefits of Stem Cells and Exosomes for Sulfur-Mustard-Induced Tissue Damage. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:9947. [PMID: 37373093 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24129947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2023] [Revised: 06/05/2023] [Accepted: 06/08/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Sulfur mustard (SM) is a highly toxic chemical agent that causes severe tissue damage, particularly to the eyes, lungs, and skin. Despite advances in treatment, there is a need for more effective therapies for SM-induced tissue injury. Stem cell and exosome therapies are emerging as promising approaches for tissue repair and regeneration. Stem cells can differentiate into multiple cell types and promote tissue regeneration, while exosomes are small vesicles that can deliver therapeutic cargo to target cells. Several preclinical studies demonstrated the potential of stem cell, exosome, or combination therapy for various tissue injury, showing improvements in tissue repairing, inflammation, and fibrosis. However, there are also challenges associated with these therapies, such as the requirement for standardized methods for exosome isolation and characterization, the long-term safety and efficacy and reduced SM-induced tissue injury of these therapies. Stem cell or exosome therapy was used for SM-induced eye and lung injury. Despite the limited data on the use for SM-induced skin injury, this therapy is a promising area of research and may offer new treatment options in the future. In this review, we focused on optimizing these therapies, evaluating their safety and efficacy, and comparing their efficacy to other emerging therapeutic approaches potentially for SM-induced tissue injury in the eye, lung, and skin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carol Christine Bosholm
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, NC 27101, USA
| | - Hainan Zhu
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, NC 27101, USA
| | - Pengfei Yu
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, NC 27101, USA
| | - Kun Cheng
- Division of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Missouri-Kansas City, 2464 Charlotte Street, Kansas City, MO 64108, USA
| | - Sean Vincent Murphy
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, NC 27101, USA
| | - Patrick Michael McNutt
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, NC 27101, USA
| | - Yuanyuan Zhang
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, NC 27101, USA
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6
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Caffin F, Boccara D, Piérard C. The Use of Hydrogel Dressings in Sulfur Mustard-Induced Skin and Ocular Wound Management. Biomedicines 2023; 11:1626. [PMID: 37371720 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines11061626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2023] [Revised: 05/17/2023] [Accepted: 05/29/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Over one century after its first military use on the battlefield, sulfur mustard (SM) remains a threatening agent. Due to the absence of an antidote and specific treatment, the management of SM-induced lesions, particularly on the skin and eyes, still represents a challenge. Current therapeutic management is mainly limited to symptomatic and supportive care, pain relief, and prevention of infectious complications. New strategies are needed to accelerate healing and optimize the repair of the function and appearance of damaged tissues. Hydrogels have been shown to be suitable for healing severe burn wounds. Because the same gravity of lesions is observed in SM victims, hydrogels could be relevant dressings to improve wound healing of SM-induced skin and ocular injuries. In this article, we review how hydrogel dressings may be beneficial for improving the wound healing of SM-induced injuries, with special emphasis placed on their suitability as drug delivery devices on SM-induced skin and ocular lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fanny Caffin
- Institut de Recherche Biomédicale des Armées, 1 Place du Général Valérie André, 91220 Brétigny-sur-Orge, France
| | - David Boccara
- Hôpital Saint-Louis, 1 Avenue Claude Vellefaux, 75010 Paris, France
| | - Christophe Piérard
- Institut de Recherche Biomédicale des Armées, 1 Place du Général Valérie André, 91220 Brétigny-sur-Orge, France
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Soleimani M, Momenaei B, Baradaran-Rafii A, Cheraqpour K, An S, Ashraf MJ, Abedi F, Javadi MA, Djalilian AR. Mustard Gas-Induced Ocular Surface Disorders: An Update on the Pathogenesis, Clinical Manifestations, and Management. Cornea 2023; 42:776-786. [PMID: 36729713 PMCID: PMC10164045 DOI: 10.1097/ico.0000000000003182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2022] [Accepted: 09/12/2022] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Mustard gas (MG) is a potent blistering and alkylating agent that has been used for military and terrorism purposes. Ocular surface injuries are common after exposure to MG. This review provides an update on the pathophysiology, ocular surface complications, and treatment options for MG-related ocular injuries. METHODS Required information was obtained by reviewing various databases such as Cochrane Library, Google Scholar, and PubMed until March 2022. Data were collected by using keywords: "mustard gas" OR "sulfur mustard" AND "eye" OR "cornea" OR "ocular complication" OR "keratitis" OR "keratopathy" OR "limbal stem cell deficiency" OR "dry eye." RESULTS Chronic intracellular toxicity, inflammation, and ischemia have been shown to play an essential role in the pathogenesis of MG injury. Ocular surface injuries can have acute, chronic, and most distinctly a delayed-onset presentation leading to various degrees of limbal stem cell deficiency. To date, no treatment has been agreed on as the standard treatment for chronic/delayed-onset MG keratopathy. Based on the authors' experience, we propose a management algorithm for MG-related ocular surface injuries involving optimization of ocular health, anti-inflammatory therapy, and if needed surgical interventions. The management of chronic and delayed-onset presentation remains challenging. CONCLUSIONS MG keratopathy is a unique form of chemical injury which can lead to a range of ocular surface pathologies. Long-term anti-inflammatory therapy even in patients with seemingly mild disease may potentially reduce the likelihood of the development of more severe delayed-onset disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Soleimani
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
- Eye Research Center, Farabi Eye Hospital, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Bita Momenaei
- Eye Research Center, Farabi Eye Hospital, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Alireza Baradaran-Rafii
- Ophthalmic Research Center, Research Institute for Ophthalmology and Vision Science, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
- Department of ophthalmology, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Kasra Cheraqpour
- Eye Research Center, Farabi Eye Hospital, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Seungwon An
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Mohammad Javad Ashraf
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Farshad Abedi
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Mohammad Ali Javadi
- Ophthalmic Research Center, Research Institute for Ophthalmology and Vision Science, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ali R. Djalilian
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
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Xiao Z, Liu F, Cheng J, Wang Y, Zhou W, Zhang Y. B-Raf inhibitor vemurafenib counteracts sulfur mustard-induced epidermal impairment through MAPK/ERK signaling. Drug Chem Toxicol 2023; 46:226-235. [PMID: 34986718 DOI: 10.1080/01480545.2021.2021927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The chemical warfare agent sulfur mustard (SM) causes severe cutaneous lesions characterized by epidermal cell death, apoptosis, and inflammation. At present, the molecular mechanisms underlying SM-induced injury are not well understood, and there is no standard treatment protocol for SM-exposed patients. Here, we conducted a high-content screening of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved drug library of 1018 compounds against SM injury on an immortal human keratinocyte HaCaT cell line, focusing on cell survival. We found that the B-Raf inhibitor vemurafenib had an apparent therapeutic effect on HaCaT cells and resisted SM toxicity. Other tested B-Raf inhibitors, both type-I (dabrafenib and encorafenib) and type-II (RAF265 and AZ628), also exhibited potent therapeutic effects on SM-exposed HaCaT cells. Both SM and vemurafenib triggered extracellular signal-related kinase (ERK) activation. The therapeutic effect of vemurafenib in HaCaT cells during SM injury was ERK-dependent, indicating a specific role of ERK in keratinocyte regulatory mechanisms. Furthermore, vemurafenib partially improved cutaneous damage in a mouse ear vesicant model. Collectively, our results provide evidence that the B-Raf inhibitor vemurafenib is a potential therapeutic agent against SM injury, and oncogenic B-Raf might be an exciting new therapeutic target following exposure to mustard vesicating agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiyong Xiao
- Beijing Institute of Pharmacology & Toxicology, Beijing, China.,State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Beijing, China
| | - Feng Liu
- Beijing Institute of Pharmacology & Toxicology, Beijing, China.,State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Beijing, China
| | - Junping Cheng
- Beijing Institute of Pharmacology & Toxicology, Beijing, China.,State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Beijing, China
| | - Ying Wang
- Beijing Institute of Pharmacology & Toxicology, Beijing, China.,State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Beijing, China
| | - Wenxia Zhou
- Beijing Institute of Pharmacology & Toxicology, Beijing, China.,State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Beijing, China
| | - Yongxiang Zhang
- Beijing Institute of Pharmacology & Toxicology, Beijing, China.,State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Beijing, China
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9
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Ramos E, Gil-Martín E, De Los Ríos C, Egea J, López-Muñoz F, Pita R, Juberías A, Torrado JJ, Serrano DR, Reiter RJ, Romero A. Melatonin as Modulator for Sulfur and Nitrogen Mustard-Induced Inflammation, Oxidative Stress and DNA Damage: Molecular Therapeutics. Antioxidants (Basel) 2023; 12:antiox12020397. [PMID: 36829956 PMCID: PMC9952307 DOI: 10.3390/antiox12020397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2022] [Revised: 01/27/2023] [Accepted: 02/04/2023] [Indexed: 02/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Sulfur and nitrogen mustards, bis(2-chloroethyl)sulfide and tertiary bis(2-chloroethyl) amines, respectively, are vesicant warfare agents with alkylating activity. Moreover, oxidative/nitrosative stress, inflammatory response induction, metalloproteinases activation, DNA damage or calcium disruption are some of the toxicological mechanisms of sulfur and nitrogen mustard-induced injury that affects the cell integrity and function. In this review, we not only propose melatonin as a therapeutic option in order to counteract and modulate several pathways involved in physiopathological mechanisms activated after exposure to mustards, but also for the first time, we predict whether metabolites of melatonin, cyclic-3-hydroxymelatonin, N1-acetyl-N2-formyl-5-methoxykynuramine, and N1-acetyl-5-methoxykynuramine could be capable of exerting a scavenger action and neutralize the toxic damage induced by these blister agents. NLRP3 inflammasome is activated in response to a wide variety of infectious stimuli or cellular stressors, however, although the precise mechanisms leading to activation are not known, mustards are postulated as activators. In this regard, melatonin, through its anti-inflammatory action and NLRP3 inflammasome modulation could exert a protective effect in the pathophysiology and management of sulfur and nitrogen mustard-induced injury. The ability of melatonin to attenuate sulfur and nitrogen mustard-induced toxicity and its high safety profile make melatonin a suitable molecule to be a part of medical countermeasures against blister agents poisoning in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Ramos
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Emilio Gil-Martín
- Department of Biochemistry, Genetics and Immunology, Faculty of Biology, University of Vigo, 36310 Vigo, Spain
| | - Cristóbal De Los Ríos
- Health Research Institute, Hospital Universitario de la Princesa, 28006 Madrid, Spain
- Departamento de Ciencias Básicas de la Salud, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, 28922 Alcorcón, Spain
| | - Javier Egea
- Molecular Neuroinflammation and Neuronal Plasticity Research Laboratory, Hospital Universitario Santa Cristina, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria-Hospital Universitario de la Princesa, 28006 Madrid, Spain
| | - Francisco López-Muñoz
- Faculty of Health, Camilo José Cela University of Madrid (UCJC), 28692 Madrid, Spain
- Neuropsychopharmacology Unit, Hospital 12 de Octubre Research Institute, 28041 Madrid, Spain
| | - René Pita
- Chemical Defense Department, Chemical, Biological, Radiological, and Nuclear Defense School, Hoyo de Manzanares, 28240 Madrid, Spain
| | - Antonio Juberías
- Dirección de Sanidad Ejército del Aire, Cuartel General Ejército del Aire, 28008 Madrid, Spain
| | - Juan J. Torrado
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Food Technology, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Dolores R. Serrano
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Food Technology, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Russel J. Reiter
- Department of Cell Systems and Anatomy, UT Health, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA
| | - Alejandro Romero
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +34-913943970
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10
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Parvin S, Shahriary A, Aghamollaei H, Gh BFNM, Bagheri H, Ghanei M, Daryabari SH, Jadidi K, Arabfard M. Tear proteomics analysis of patient suffered from delayed mustard gas keratopathy. Proteome Sci 2022; 20:13. [PMID: 35948930 PMCID: PMC9364592 DOI: 10.1186/s12953-022-00195-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2021] [Accepted: 08/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding the molecular and cellular mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of ocular injured induced by mustard gas can help better identify complications and discover appropriate therapies. This study aimed to analyze the proteomics of tears of chemical warfare victims with mustard gas ocular injuries and compare it with healthy individuals. In this case-control research, 10 mustard gas victims with long-term ocular difficulties (Chronic) were included in the patient group, while 10 healthy persons who were age and sex matched to the patients were included in the control group. Schirmer strips were used to collect the tears of the participants. Proteomics experiments were performed using the high-efficiency TMT10X method to evaluate the tear protein profile, and statistical bioinformatics methods were used to identify the differently expressed proteins. 24 proteins had different expressions between the two groups. Among these 24 proteins, 8 proteins had increased expression in veterans' tears, while the remaining 16 proteins had decreased expression. Reactome pathways were used to look at proteins with various expressions, and 13 proteins were found to be engaged in the immune system, 9 of which were effective in the innate immune system, and 5 proteins were effective in the complement cascade. Ocular mustard gas exposure may cause a compromised immune system on the eye's surface, exposing the cornea to external and endogenous infections, and eventually causing corneal opacity and reduced vision.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shahram Parvin
- Chemical Injuries Research Center, Systems Biology and Poisonings Institute, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.,Education Office, Pasture Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Alireza Shahriary
- Chemical Injuries Research Center, Systems Biology and Poisonings Institute, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hossein Aghamollaei
- Chemical Injuries Research Center, Systems Biology and Poisonings Institute, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - B Fatemeh Nobakht M Gh
- Chemical Injuries Research Center, Systems Biology and Poisonings Institute, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hasan Bagheri
- Chemical Injuries Research Center, Systems Biology and Poisonings Institute, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mostafa Ghanei
- Chemical Injuries Research Center, Systems Biology and Poisonings Institute, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Seyed-Hashem Daryabari
- Chemical Injuries Research Center, Systems Biology and Poisonings Institute, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Khosrow Jadidi
- Chemical Injuries Research Center, Systems Biology and Poisonings Institute, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Masoud Arabfard
- Chemical Injuries Research Center, Systems Biology and Poisonings Institute, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
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11
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Mishra N, Agarwal R. Research models of sulfur mustard- and nitrogen mustard-induced ocular injuries and potential therapeutics. Exp Eye Res 2022; 223:109209. [PMID: 35961426 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2022.109209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2022] [Revised: 07/27/2022] [Accepted: 08/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Sulfur mustard (SM) is a notorious, bifunctional alkylating vesicant that was first used in warfare during World War I in 1917 and since then has been deployed in numerous skirmishes with its most recent documented use being during the Middle Eastern conflicts. Apart from its use in combat and terrorist activities, continual threat of accidental exposure from old stockpiles and improperly discarded munitions is ever present, especially to the innocent and unassuming civilian populations. SM can cause devastating injuries, depending on the dosage of SM exposure, route of exposure, as well as the physiological conditions of the individuals exposed. The most common routes of exposure are ocular, dermal, and exposure to the lungs and respiratory tissues through inhalation. Eyes are the most susceptible organ to SM-induced toxicities owing to their high moisture content and rapidly dividing cells. Additionally, ocular injury causes the most expeditious disablement of individuals even upon whole-body exposures. Therefore, it is imperative to understand the mechanisms underlying SM-induced ocular toxicity and design therapeutic interventions to prevent/mitigate ocular injuries. Ocular SM exposure may cause a wide range of symptoms such as inflammation, lacrimation, itching, dryness, photophobia, edema of the cornea/sclera/retina/iris, conjunctivitis, degradation of the corneal layer, fusion of two or more ocular layers, neovascularization, fibrosis, and temporary or permanent structural damage to one or more ocular layers. These symptoms may lead to vision impairments, resulting in partial or complete blindness that may be permanent. The highly toxic and exceedingly notorious nature of SM makes it a highly regulated chemical, requiring very expensive licensing, security, and safety requirements; thus, the more easily accessible analogue, nitrogen mustard (NM) that mimics SM-induced toxicity and injuries is employed in plethora of studies conducted in different animal models and culture systems. This review provides a comprehensive account of the injuries and symptoms that occur upon ocular SM exposures in human patients as well as studies in animal (in vivo, ex vivo) and cell (in vitro) models of SM and NM ocular exposures. Special emphasis has been laid on highlighting the strengths and lacunae in the research as well as the possible unexplored avenues of mechanisms underlying mustard-induced ocular injury that can be explored in future research endeavors. Furthermore, development of therapeutic interventions and targets of interest in the ocular system exposed to SM and NM, based on studies in human patients as well as in vivo, ex vivo, and in vitro models has been discussed in great depth, providing a valuable knowledge database to delineate pathways associated with vesicant-induced toxicity, and strategies/diagnostic tools against SM-induced toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neha Mishra
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
| | - Rajesh Agarwal
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA.
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12
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Goswami DG, Mishra N, Kant R, Agarwal C, Croutch CR, Enzenauer RW, Petrash MJ, Tewari-Singh N, Agarwal R. Pathophysiology and inflammatory biomarkers of sulfur mustard-induced corneal injury in rabbits. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0258503. [PMID: 34637469 PMCID: PMC8509852 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0258503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2021] [Accepted: 09/28/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Sulfur mustard (SM) is a cytotoxic, vesicating, chemical warfare agent, first used in 1917; corneas are particularly vulnerable to SM exposure. They may develop inflammation, ulceration, neovascularization (NV), impaired vision, and partial/complete blindness depending upon the concentration of SM, exposure duration, and bio-physiological conditions of the eyes. Comprehensive in vivo studies have established ocular structural alterations, opacity, NV, and inflammation upon short durations (<4 min) of SM exposure. In this study, detailed analyses of histopathological alterations in corneal structure, keratocytes, inflammatory cells, blood vessels, and expressions of cyclooxygenase (COX)-2, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and cytokines were performed in New Zealand white rabbits, in a time-dependent manner till 28 days, post longer durations (5 and 7 min) of ocular SM exposure to establish quantifiable endpoints of injury and healing. Results indicated that SM exposure led to duration-dependent increases in corneal thickness, opacity, ulceration, epithelial-stromal separation, and epithelial degradation. Significant increases in NV, keratocyte death, blood vessels, and inflammatory markers (COX-2, MMP-9, VEGF, and interleukin-8) were also observed for both exposure durations compared to the controls. Collectively, these findings would benefit in temporal delineation of mechanisms underlying SM-induced corneal toxicity and provide models for testing therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dinesh G. Goswami
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Neha Mishra
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Rama Kant
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Chapla Agarwal
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Claire R. Croutch
- Medical Countermeasures Division, MRIGlobal, Kansas City, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Robert W. Enzenauer
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Mark J. Petrash
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Neera Tewari-Singh
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Rajesh Agarwal
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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13
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Lüling R, Schmeißer W, Siegert M, Mückter H, Dietrich A, Thiermann H, Gudermann T, John H, Steinritz D. Identification of creatine kinase and alpha-1 antitrypsin as protein targets of alkylation by sulfur mustard. Drug Test Anal 2020; 13:268-282. [PMID: 32852113 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2020] [Revised: 08/16/2020] [Accepted: 08/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Sulfur mustard (SM) is a toxic chemical warfare agent deployed in several conflicts within the last 100 years and still represents a threat in terroristic attacks and warfare. SM research focuses on understanding the pathophysiology of SM and identifying novel biomarkers of exposure. SM is known to alkylate nucleophilic moieties of endogenous proteins, for example, free thiol groups of cysteine residues. The two-dimensional-thiol-differences in gel electrophoresis (2D-thiol-DIGE) technique is an initial proteomics approach to detect proteins with free cysteine residues. These amino acids are selectively labeled with infrared-maleimide dyes visualized after GE. Cysteine residues derivatized by alkylating agents are no longer accessible for the maleimide-thiol coupling resulting in the loss of the fluorescent signal of the corresponding protein. To prove the applicability of 2D-thiol-DIGE, this technology was exemplarily applied to neat human serum albumin treated with SM, to lysates from human cell culture exposed to SM as well as to human plasma exposed to CEES (chloroethyl ethyl sulfide, an SM analogue). Exemplarily, the most prominent proteins modified by SM were identified by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight (tandem) mass spectrometry, MALDI-TOF MS(/MS), as creatine kinase (CK) from human cells and as alpha-1 antitrypsin (A1AT) from plasma samples. Peptides containing the residue Cys282 of CK and Cys232 of A1AT were unambiguously identified by micro liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization high-resolution tandem-mass spectrometry (μLC-ESI MS/HR MS) as being alkylated by SM bearing the specific hydroxyethylthioethyl-(HETE)-moiety. Both peptides might represent potential biomarkers of SM exposure. This is the first report introducing these endogenous proteins as targets of SM alkylation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robin Lüling
- Bundeswehr Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Munich, Germany.,Walther-Straub-Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität Munich, Munich, Germany
| | | | - Markus Siegert
- Bundeswehr Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Munich, Germany.,Department of Chemistry, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Harald Mückter
- Walther-Straub-Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Alexander Dietrich
- Walther-Straub-Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Horst Thiermann
- Bundeswehr Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Munich, Germany
| | - Thomas Gudermann
- Walther-Straub-Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Harald John
- Bundeswehr Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Munich, Germany
| | - Dirk Steinritz
- Bundeswehr Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Munich, Germany.,Walther-Straub-Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität Munich, Munich, Germany.,Bundeswehr Medical Service Academy, Munich, Germany
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14
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Two dimensional proteomic analysis of serum shows immunological proteins exclusively expressed in sulfur mustard exposed patients with long term pulmonary complications. Int Immunopharmacol 2020; 88:106857. [PMID: 32853926 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2020.106857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2020] [Revised: 07/25/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Despite more than 30 years after utilization of sulfur mustard or bis (2-chloroethyl) sulfide (SM) by Iraqi troops against Iranian military members and civilians, there are a lot of reported delayed complications for the exposed people. Nonetheless, the molecular mechanism of action from this chemical warfare agent is not recognized yet. MATERIAL AND METHOD In this study, we employed two dimensional gel electrophoresis (2DE) technique to investigate the serum proteins from chemical exposed people compared to non-exposed individuals to provide an inside into molecular mechanism of this chemical agent. Each group was divided into two subgroups including individuals with, and without respiratory complications. For each group, 10 individuals were included after informed consent. RESULT The results showed protein spots, which were exclusively/mainly expressed in chemical exposed patients with complications, including T cell receptor alpha, and hematopoietic cell signal transducer. Also there were protein spots that were expressed only in all exposed groups (with and without complications). On the other hand, we could identify protein spots that were exclusively expressed/altered only in non-exposed group with complications including Pre T-cell antigen receptor, CD40 ligand, and multidrug and toxin extrusion proteins. CONCLUSION Our investigation could result in identification of proteins that are associated to chemical exposure, as well as those specific for respiratory complications irrespective of chemical exposure. These candidate proteins can be used as biomarker, as well as a base for understanding the molecular mechanism of this chemical agent.
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15
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NAD + in sulfur mustard toxicity. Toxicol Lett 2020; 324:95-103. [PMID: 32017979 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2020.01.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2019] [Revised: 01/08/2020] [Accepted: 01/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Sulfur mustard (SM) is a toxicant and chemical warfare agent with strong vesicant properties. The mechanisms behind SM-induced toxicity are not fully understood and no antidote or effective therapy against SM exists. Both, the risk of SM release in asymmetric conflicts or terrorist attacks and the usage of SM-derived nitrogen mustards as cancer chemotherapeutics, render the mechanisms of mustard-induced toxicity a highly relevant research subject. Herein, we review a central role of the abundant cellular molecule nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) in molecular mechanisms underlying SM toxicity. We also discuss the potential beneficial effects of NAD+ precursors in counteracting SM-induced damage.
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16
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Yan X, Shu Y, He J, Zhao J, Jia L, Xie J, Sun Y, Zhao Z, Peng S. Therapeutic Effects of Human Umbilical Cord Mesenchymal Stromal Cells in Sprague-Dawley Rats with Percutaneous Exposure to Sulfur Mustard. Stem Cells Dev 2018; 28:69-80. [PMID: 30343632 DOI: 10.1089/scd.2018.0143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Sulfur mustard (SM) exposure, whose symptoms are similar to radiation exposure, can lead to acute injury. Because mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) have been used to experimentally and clinically treat acute radiation syndrome, in this study, MSCs were intravenously injected into rats after percutaneous SM exposure. Then, we examined sternum and spleen samples by histopathological and immunohistochemical methods to observe pathological changes. Furthermore, blood samples were taken to test the white blood cell (WBC) count, blood platelet count (BPC), red blood cell count, and the levels of cytokines in the serum. The number of bone marrow karyocytes and the WBC in the MSC + SM group were higher than those in the SM group, and the levels of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor, granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, interleukin (IL)-1α, IL-5, and interferon-γ in the MSC + SM group remained high at different time points after SM exposure. In addition, the BPC, the level of erythropoietin and the relative weight of the spleen in the MSC + SM group were significantly higher than those in the SM group. Meanwhile, spleens in the MSC + SM group were more hyperplastic and hematopoietic, and had fewer apoptotic cells than in the SM group. Furthermore, rat body weight and locomotion ability in the MSC + SM group were higher than in the SM group. This evidence supports the potential ability of MSCs in immunoregulation and functional improvements to the hemopoietic microenvironment. Intravenous injection of MSCs exerted significant therapeutic effects in rats with percutaneous exposure to SM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiabei Yan
- 1 Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Academy of Military Sciences, Beijing, China.,2 Evaluation and Research Center for Toxicology, Institute of Disease Control and Prevention of PLA, Beijing, China
| | - Yulei Shu
- 2 Evaluation and Research Center for Toxicology, Institute of Disease Control and Prevention of PLA, Beijing, China
| | - Jun He
- 2 Evaluation and Research Center for Toxicology, Institute of Disease Control and Prevention of PLA, Beijing, China
| | - Jun Zhao
- 2 Evaluation and Research Center for Toxicology, Institute of Disease Control and Prevention of PLA, Beijing, China
| | - Li Jia
- 2 Evaluation and Research Center for Toxicology, Institute of Disease Control and Prevention of PLA, Beijing, China
| | - Jianwei Xie
- 3 Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yansong Sun
- 4 Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, China
| | - Zengming Zhao
- 2 Evaluation and Research Center for Toxicology, Institute of Disease Control and Prevention of PLA, Beijing, China
| | - Shuangqing Peng
- 2 Evaluation and Research Center for Toxicology, Institute of Disease Control and Prevention of PLA, Beijing, China
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