Th17 immune response to adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stromal cells

Mesenchymal stem cells alleviate inflammatory responses through regulation of T-cell subsets

Immune-mediated inflammatory disease (IMID) is a complex disorder characterized by excessive immune responses involving T cells and their subsets, leading to direct tissue damage. T cells can be broadly categorized into CD4+ T cells and CD8+ T cells. CD4+ T cells are composed of several subsets, including T helper (Th)1, Th2, Th9, Th17, Th22, follicular helper T cells (Tfhs), and regulatory T cells (Tregs), while effector CD8+ T cells consist mainly of cytotoxic T cells (CTLs). Current therapies for IMID are ineffective, prompting exploration into mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) as a promising clinical treatment due to their immunomodulatory effects and self-renewal potential. Recent studies have shown that MSCs can suppress T cells through direct cell-to-cell contact or secretion of soluble cytokines. Nevertheless, the precise effects of MSCs on T cell subsets remain inadequately defined. In this review, we summarize the most recent studies that have examined how MSCs modulate one or more effector T-cell subsets and the mechanisms behind these modifications in vitro and several mouse models of clinical inflammation. This also provides theoretical support and novel insights into the efficacy of clinical treatments involving MSCs. However, the efficacy of MSC therapies in clinical models of inflammation varies, showing effective remission in most cases, but also with exacerbation of T-cell-mediated inflammatory damage in some instances.

Mesenchymal stem cells biological and biotechnological advances: Implications for clinical applications

BACKGROUND

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are multipotent stem cells that are able to differentiate into multiple lineages including bone, cartilage, muscle and fat. They hold immunomodulatory properties and therapeutic ability to treat multiple diseases, including autoimmune and chronic degenerative diseases. In this article, we reviewed the different biological properties, applications and clinical trials of MSCs. Also, we discussed the basics of manufacturing conditions, quality control, and challenges facing MSCs in the clinical setting.

METHODS

Extensive review of the literature was conducted through the databases PubMed, Google Scholar, and Cochrane. Papers published since 2015 and covering the clinical applications and research of MSC therapy were considered. Furthermore, older papers were considered when referring to pioneering studies in the field.

RESULTS

The most widely studied stem cells in cell therapy and tissue repair are bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells. Adipose tissue-derived stem cells became more common and to a lesser extent other stem cell sources e.g., foreskin derived MSCs. MSCs therapy were also studied in the setting of COVID-19 infections, ischemic strokes, autoimmune diseases, tumor development and graft rejection. Multiple obstacles, still face the standardization and optimization of MSC therapy such as the survival and the immunophenotype and the efficiency of transplanted cells. MSCs used in clinical settings displayed heterogeneity in their function despite their extraction from healthy donors and expression of similar surface markers.

CONCLUSION

Mesenchymal stem cells offer a rising therapeutic promise in various diseases. However, their potential use in clinical applications requires further investigation.

Adipose-derived stem cells in immune-related skin disease: a review of current research and underlying mechanisms

Adipose-derived stem cells (ASCs) are a critical adult stem cell subpopulation and are widely utilized in the fields of regenerative medicine and stem cell research due to their abundance, ease of harvest, and low immunogenicity. ASCs, which are homologous with skin by nature, can treat immune-related skin diseases by promoting skin regeneration and conferring immunosuppressive effects, with the latter being the most important therapeutic mechanism. ASCs regulate the immune response by direct cell-cell communication with immune cells, such as T cells, macrophages, and B cells. In addition to cell-cell interactions, ASCs modulate the immune response indirectly by secreting cytokines, interleukins, growth factors, and extracellular vesicles. The immunomodulatory effects of ASCs have been exploited to treat many immune-related skin diseases with good therapeutic outcomes. This article reviews the mechanisms underlying the immunomodulatory effects of ASCs, as well as progress in research on immune-related skin diseases.

Umbilical Cord Mesenchymal Stromal/Stem Cells and Their Interplay with Th-17 Cell Response Pathway

As a form of immunomodulatory therapeutics, mesenchymal stromal/stem cells (MSCs) from umbilical cord (UC) tissue were assessed for their dynamic interplay with the Th-17 immune response pathway. UC-MSCs were able to modulate lymphocyte response by promoting a Th-17-like profile. Such modulation depended on the cell ratio of the cocultures as well as the presence of an inflammatory setting underlying their plasticity. UC-MSCs significantly increased the expression of IL-17A and RORγt but differentially modulated T cell expression of IL-23R. In parallel, the secretion profile of the fifteen factors (IL1β, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, IL-17A, IL-17F, IL-22, IL-21, IL-23, IL-25, IL-31, IL-33, INF-γ, sCD40, and TNF-α) involved in the Th-17 immune response pathway was substantially altered during these cocultures. The modulation of these factors demonstrates the capacity of UC-MSCs to sense and actively respond to tissue challenges. Protein network and functional enrichment analysis indicated that several biological processes, molecular functions, and cellular components linked to distinct Th-17 signaling interactions are involved in several trophic, inflammatory, and immune network responses. These immunological changes and interactions with the Th-17 pathway are likely critical to tissue healing and may help to identify molecular targets that will improve therapeutic strategies involving UC-MSCs.

Factors Defining Human Adipose Stem/Stromal Cell Immunomodulation in Vitro

Human adipose tissue-derived stem/stromal cells (hASCs) are adult multipotent mesenchymal stem/stromal cells with immunomodulatory capacities. Here, we present up-to-date knowledge on the impact of different experimental and donor-related factors on hASC immunoregulatory functions in vitro. The experimental determinants include the immunological status of hASCs relative to target immune cells, contact vs. contactless interaction, and oxygen tension. Factors such as the ratio of hASCs to immune cells, the cellular context, the immune cell activation status, and coculture duration are also discussed. Conditioning of hASCs with different approaches before interaction with immune cells, hASC culture in xenogenic or xenofree culture medium, hASC culture in two-dimension vs. three-dimension with biomaterials, and the hASC passage number are among the experimental parameters that greatly may impact the hASC immunosuppressive potential in vitro, thus, they are also considered. Moreover, the influence of donor-related characteristics such as age, sex, and health status on hASC immunomodulation in vitro is reviewed. By analysis of the literature studies, most of the indicated determinants have been investigated in broad non-standardized ranges, so the results are not univocal. Clear conclusions cannot be drawn for the fine-tuned scenarios of many important factors to set a standard hASC immunopotency assay. Such variability needs to be carefully considered in further standardized research. Importantly, field experts' opinions may help to make it clearer.

Influence of type 2 diabetes and obesity on adipose mesenchymal stem/stromal cell immunoregulation

Type 2 diabetes (T2D), associated with obesity, represents a state of metabolic inflammation and oxidative stress leading to insulin resistance and progressive insulin deficiency. Adipose-derived stem cells (ASCs) are adult mesenchymal stem/stromal cells identified within the stromal vascular fraction of adipose tissue. These cells can regulate the immune system and possess anti-inflammatory properties. ASCs are a potential therapeutic modality for inflammatory diseases including T2D. Patient-derived (autologous) rather than allogeneic ASCs may be a relatively safer approach in clinical perspectives, to avoid occasional anti-donor immune responses. However, patient characteristics such as body mass index (BMI), inflammatory status, and disease duration and severity may limit the therapeutic utility of ASCs. The current review presents human ASC (hASC) immunoregulatory mechanisms with special emphasis on those related to T lymphocytes, hASC implications in T2D treatment, and the impact of T2D and obesity on hASC immunoregulatory potential. hASCs can modulate the proliferation, activation, and functions of diverse innate and adaptive immune cells via direct cell-to-cell contact and secretion of paracrine mediators and extracellular vesicles. Preclinical studies recommend the therapeutic potential of hASCs to improve inflammation and metabolic indices in a high-fat diet (HFD)-induced T2D disease model. Discordant data have been reported to unravel intact or detrimentally affected immunomodulatory functions of ASCs, isolated from patients with obesity and/or T2D patients, in vitro and in vivo. Numerous preconditioning strategies have been introduced to potentiate hASC immunomodulation; they are also discussed here as possible options to potentiate the immunoregulatory functions of hASCs isolated from patients with obesity and T2D.

Impact of Adipose-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells (ASCs) of Rheumatic Disease Patients on T Helper Cell Differentiation

Complex pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and systemic sclerosis (SSc) is associated with an imbalance of various Th-cell subpopulations. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have the ability to restore this balance. However, bone marrow-derived MSCs of SLE and SSc patients exhibit many abnormalities, whereas the properties of adipose derived mesenchymal stem cells (ASCS) are much less known. Therefore, we examined the effect of ASCs obtained from SLE (SLE/ASCs) and SSc (SSc/ASCs) patients on Th subset differentiation, using cells from healthy donors (HD/ASCs) as controls. ASCs were co-cultured with activated CD4⁺ T cells or peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Expression of transcription factors defining Th1, Th2, Th17, and regulatory T cell (Tregs) subsets, i.e., T-bet, GATA3, RORc, and FoxP3, were analysed by quantitative RT-PCR, the concentrations of subset-specific cytokines were measured by ELISA, and Tregs formation by flow cytometry. Compared with HD/ASCs, SLE/ASCs and especially SSc/ASCs triggered Th differentiation which was disturbed at the transcription levels of genes encoding Th1- and Tregs-related transcription factors. However, we failed to find functional consequences of this abnormality, because all tested ASCs similarly switched differentiation from Th1 to Th2 direction with accompanying IFNγ/IL-4 ratio decrease, up-regulated Th17 formation and IL-17 secretion, and up-regulated classical Tregs generation.

Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Secreted TGF-β1 Restores Treg/Th17 Skewing Induced by Lipopolysaccharide and Hypoxia Challenge via miR-155 Suppression

Background. Regulatory T cell (Treg)/T helper (Th) 17 skewing is important in the development of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Immunomodulatory effects of mesenchymal stem cell- (MSC-) secreted transforming growth factor- (TGF-) β1 on CD4+ T cells are environment-sensitive and lack discussion in hypoxic and inflammatory conditions. Methods. Mouse splenic CD4+ T cells were precoated with anti-CD3 (5 μg/ml) and anti-CD28 (2 μg/ml) overnight. RAW264.7 cells were added as antigen-presenting cells (APCs). T cells with and without RAW264.7 cells were treated with various LPS concentrations of 0, 10, 100, and 1000 ng/ml or/and at hypoxia condition of 5% O2. Based on LPS (100 ng/ml) and hypoxia conditions (5% O2) as stimuli, MSCs were set as direct coculture or indirect coculture by transwell system. Anti-TGF-β1 neutralization antibody was added to explore the role of TGF-β1 among the soluble factors secreted by MSCs; miR-155 overexpression of CD4+ T cells was performed by transfection, and then, cells were added to the MSC-CD4+ T cell coculture system in hypoxic- and LPS-stimulated condition. After 48 hours, cells or supernatants were collected for detection of frequency of Treg and Th17 subsets, CD4+ T cell apoptosis and proliferation capacity assay by flow cytometry, secretion of INF-γ, IL-17A, IL-21, TGF-β1, and IL-10 by ELISA, and levels of miR-155, Rorc, Foxp3, and Ptpn2 mRNA expression of CD4+ T cells by RT-PCR. Results. MSCs could restore skewed Treg/Th17 induced by LPS and hypoxia compared to groups without MSCs with increased secretion of TGF-β1, IL-10, and IL-17A ( $P<0.05$ ) and attenuate the increased expression of miR-155 in CD4+ T cells via cell-to-cell contact mechanism while TGF-β1 neutralization significantly inhibited the effects of MSCs restoring skewed Treg/Th17 and abolished its effect on miR-155 expression in CD4+ T cells. Conclusions. These findings suggested miR-155 suppression of CD4+ T cells mediated MSC-secreted TGF-β1 modulating skewed Treg/Th17 induced by LPS-hypoxia challenge, providing evidence when proposing future T lymphocyte-targeted cell therapy in a specific condition.

In Vitro Cellular and Molecular Interplay between Human Foreskin-Derived Mesenchymal Stromal/Stem Cells and the Th17 Cell Pathway

Foreskin, considered a biological waste material, has been shown to be a reservoir of therapeutic cells. The immunomodulatory properties of mesenchymal stromal/stem cells (MSCs) from the foreskin (FSK-MSCs) are being evaluated in cell-based therapy for degenerative, inflammatory and autoimmune disorders. Within the injured/inflamed tissue, proinflammatory lymphocytes such as IL-17-producing T helper cells (Th17) may interact with the stromal microenvironment, including MSCs. In this context, MSCs may encounter different levels of T cells as well as specific inflammatory signals. Uncovering the cellular and molecular changes during this interplay is central for developing an efficient and safe immunotherapeutic tool. To this end, an in vitro human model of cocultures of FSK-MSCs and T cells was established. These cocultures were performed at different cell ratios in the presence of an inflammatory setting. After confirming that FSK-MSCs respond to ISCT criteria by showing a typical phenotype and multilineage potential, we evaluated by flow cytometry the expression of Th17 cell markers IL-17A, IL23 receptor and RORγt within the lymphocyte population. We also measured 15 human Th17 pathway-related cytokines. Regardless of the T cell/MSC ratio, we observed a significant increase in IL-17A expression associated with an increase in IL-23 receptor expression. Furthermore, we observed substantial modulation of IL-1β, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, IL-17A, IL-17F, IL-21, IL-22, IL-23, IL-25, IL-31, IL-33, INF-γ, sCD40, and TNF-α secretion. These findings suggest that FSK-MSCs are receptive to their environment and modulate the T cell response accordingly. The changes within the secretome of the stromal and immune environment are likely relevant for the therapeutic effect of MSCs. FSK-MSCs represent a valuable cellular product for immunotherapeutic purposes that needs to be further clarified and developed.

The Therapeutic Potential of Mesenchymal Stromal Cells for Regenerative Medicine: Current Knowledge and Future Understandings

In recent decades, research on the therapeutic potential of progenitor cells has advanced considerably. Among progenitor cells, mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) have attracted significant interest and have proven to be a promising tool for regenerative medicine. MSCs are isolated from various anatomical sites, including bone marrow, adipose tissue, and umbilical cord. Advances in separation, culture, and expansion techniques for MSCs have enabled their large-scale therapeutic application. This progress accompanied by the rapid improvement of transplantation practices has enhanced the utilization of MSCs in regenerative medicine. During tissue healing, MSCs may exhibit several therapeutic functions to support the repair and regeneration of injured tissue. The process underlying these effects likely involves the migration and homing of MSCs, as well as their immunotropic functions. The direct differentiation of MSCs as a cell replacement therapeutic mechanism is discussed. The fate and behavior of MSCs are further regulated by their microenvironment, which may consequently influence their repair potential. A paracrine pathway based on the release of different messengers, including regulatory factors, chemokines, cytokines, growth factors, and nucleic acids that can be secreted or packaged into extracellular vesicles, is also implicated in the therapeutic properties of MSCs. In this review, we will discuss relevant outcomes regarding the properties and roles of MSCs during tissue repair and regeneration. We will critically examine the influence of the local microenvironment, especially immunological and inflammatory signals, as well as the mechanisms underlying these therapeutic effects. Importantly, we will describe the interactions of local progenitor and immune cells with MSCs and their modulation during tissue injury. We will also highlight the crucial role of paracrine pathways, including the role of extracellular vesicles, in this healing process. Moreover, we will discuss the therapeutic potential of MSCs and MSC-derived extracellular vesicles in the treatment of COVID-19 (coronavirus disease 2019) patients. Overall, this review will provide a better understanding of MSC-based therapies as a novel immunoregenerative strategy.

Modulatory Impact of Adipose-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells of Ankylosing Spondylitis Patients on T Helper Cell Differentiation

The domination of pro-inflammatory Th subsets (Th1, Th17) is characteristic of ankylosing spondylitis (AS). Mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) were reported to normalize Th imbalance, but whether MSCs from AS adipose tissue (AS/ASCs) possess such properties is unknown. We examined AS/ASCs' impact on Th-cell differentiation, using healthy donors ASCs (HD/ASCs) as a control. The assessment of the expression of transcription factors defining Th1 (T-bet), Th2 (GATA3), Th17 (RORc), and Treg (FoxP3) subsets by quantitative RT-PCR, the concentrations of subset-specific cytokines by ELISA, and Treg (CD4⁺CD25^highFoxP3⁺) formation by flow cytometry, were performed in the co-cultures of ASCs with activated CD4⁺ T cells or peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). AS/ASCs and HD/ASCs exerted similar immunomodulatory effects. Acting directly on CD4⁺ T cells, ASCs decreased the T-bet/GATA3 and RORc/FoxP3 ratios, diminished Treg formation, but increase IFNγ and IL-17AF production, while ASCs co-cultured with PBMCs enhanced Treg generation and reduced IFNγ release. ASCs failed to up-regulate the anti-inflammatory IL-10 and TGFβ. AS/ASCs' impact on allogeneic and autologous PBMCs was similar. In conclusion, to shift Th differentiation to a functional anti-inflammatory direction, ASCs require accessory cell support, whereas their direct effect may be pro-inflammatory. Because ASCs neither inhibit IL-17AF nor up-regulate anti-inflammatory cytokines, their usefulness for AS patients' treatment remains uncertain.

Axial spondyloarthritis: new advances in diagnosis and management

Axial spondyloarthritis (axSpA) is an inflammatory disease of the axial skeleton associated with significant pain and disability. Previously, the diagnosis of ankylosing spondylitis required advanced changes on plain radiographs of the sacroiliac joints. Classification criteria released in 2009, however, identified a subset of patients, under the age of 45, with back pain for more than three months in the absence of radiographic sacroiliitis who were classified as axSpA based on a positive magnetic resonance imaging or HLAB27 positivity and specific clinical features. This subgroup was labeled non-radiographic (nr)-axSpA. These patients, compared with those identified by the older New York criteria, contained a larger percentage of women and demonstrated less structural damage. However, their clinical manifestations and response to biologics were similar to radiographic axSpA. The discovery of the interleukin (IL) IL-23/IL-17 pathway revealed key molecules involved in the pathophysiology of axSpA. This discovery propelled the generation of antibodies directed toward IL-17A, which are highly effective and demonstrate treatment responses in axSpA that are similar to those observed with anti-TNF agents. The finding that agents that block IL-23 were not effective in axSpA came as a surprise and the potential underlying mechanisms underlying this lack of response are discussed. New agents with dual inhibition of the IL-17A and F isoforms and some oral small molecule agents that target the Jak-STAT pathway, have also shown efficacy in axSpA.

Mechanisms behind the Immunoregulatory Dialogue between Mesenchymal Stem Cells and Th17 Cells

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) exhibit potent immunoregulatory abilities by interacting with cells of the adaptive and innate immune system. In vitro, MSCs inhibit the differentiation of T cells into T helper 17 (Th17) cells and repress their proliferation. In vivo, the administration of MSCs to treat various experimental inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, type 1 diabetes, multiple sclerosis, systemic lupus erythematosus, and bowel disease showed promising therapeutic results. These therapeutic properties mediated by MSCs are associated with an attenuated immune response characterized by a reduced frequency of Th17 cells and the generation of regulatory T cells. In this manuscript, we review how MSC and Th17 cells interact, communicate, and exchange information through different ways such as cell-to-cell contact, secretion of soluble factors, and organelle transfer. Moreover, we discuss the consequences of this dynamic dialogue between MSC and Th17 well described by their phenotypic and functional plasticity.