Early Drain Removal Versus Routine Drain Removal After Pancreaticoduodenectomy and/or Distal Pancreatectomy: A Meta-Analysis and Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

Early drain removal (EDR) has been widely accepted, but not been routinely used in patients after pancreaticoduodenectomy (PD) and distal pancreatectomy (DP). This study aimed to evaluate the safety and benefits of EDR versus routine drain removal (RDR) after PD or DP.

METHODS

A systematic search was conducted on medical search engines from January 1, 2008 to November 1, 2023, for articles that compared EDR versus RDR after PD or DP. The primary outcome was clinically relevant postoperative pancreatic fistula (CR-POPF). Further analysis of studies including patients with low-drain fluid amylase (low-DFA) on postoperative day 1 and defining EDR timing as within 3 days was also performed.

RESULTS

Four randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and eleven non-RCTs with a total of 9465 patients were included in this analysis. For the primary outcome, the EDR group had a significantly lower rate of CR-POPF (OR 0.23; p < 0.001). For the secondary outcomes, a lower incidence was observed in delayed gastric emptying (OR 0.63, p = 0.02), Clavien-Dindo III-V complications (OR 0.48, p < 0.001), postoperative hemorrhage (OR 0.55, p = 0.02), reoperation (OR 0.57, p < 0.001), readmission (OR 0.70, p = 0.003) and length of stay (MD -2.04, p < 0.001) in EDR. Consistent outcomes were observed in the subgroup analysis of low-DFA patients and definite EDR timing, except for postoperative hemorrhage in EDR.

CONCLUSION

EDR after PD or DP is beneficial and safe, reducing the incidence of CR-POPF and other postoperative complications. Further prospective studies and RCTs are required to validate this finding.

A combined score for predicting clinically relevant postoperative pancreatic fistula based on inflammatory parameters and drainage fluid culture results on postoperative day 3

BACKGROUND

Clinically relevant postoperative pancreatic fistula (CR-POPF) after pancreatic resection can lead to severe postoperative complications. POPF is defined based on postoperative day (POD) 3 drainage fluid amylase level. POPF correlates with inflammatory parameters as well as drainage fluid bacterial infection. However, a standardized model based on these factors for predicting CR-POPF remains elusive. We aimed to identify inflammatory parameter- and drainage fluid culture-related risk factors for CR-POPF on POD 3 after pancreatoduodenectomy (PD) and distal pancreatectomy (DP).

METHODS

Data from 351 patients who underwent PD or DP between 2013 and 2022 at a single institution were retrospectively analyzed. Risk factors for CR-POPF were investigated using multivariate analyses, and a prediction model combining the risk factors for CR-POPF was developed.

RESULTS

Of the 351 patients, 254 and 97 underwent PD and DP, respectively. Multivariate analyses revealed that drainage fluid amylase level ≥722 IU/L, culture positivity, as well as neutrophil count ≥5473/mm3 on POD 3 were independent risk factors for CR-POPF in PD group. Similarly, drainage fluid, amylase level ≥500 IU/L, and culture positivity on POD 3 as well as pancreatic thickness ≥11.1 mm were independent risk factors in the DP group. The model for predicting CR-POPF achieved the maximum overall accuracy rate when the number of risk factors was ≥2 in both the PD and DP groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Inflammatory parameters on POD 3 significantly influence the risk of CR-POPF onset after pancreatectomy. The combined models based on these values can accurately predict the risk of CR-POPF after pancreatectomy.

Non-Surgical Interventions for the Prevention of Clinically Relevant Postoperative Pancreatic Fistula-A Narrative Review

Clinically relevant postoperative pancreatic fistula (CR-POPF) is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality after pancreatic surgery. Post-pancreatectomy acute pancreatitis (PPAP) has been increasingly understood as a precursor and exacerbator of CR-POPF. No longer believed to be the consequence of surgical technique, the solution to preventing CR-POPF may lie instead in non-surgical, mainly pharmacological interventions. Five databases were searched, identifying eight pharmacological preventative strategies, including neoadjuvant therapy, somatostatin and its analogues, antibiotics, analgesia, corticosteroids, protease inhibitors, miscellaneous interventions with few reports, and combination strategies. Two further non-surgical interventions studied were nutrition and fluids. New potential interventions were also identified from related surgical and experimental contexts. Given the varied efficacy reported for these interventions, numerous opportunities for clarifying this heterogeneity remain. By reducing CR-POPF, patients may avoid morbid sequelae, experience shorter hospital stays, and ensure timely delivery of adjuvant therapy, overall aiding survival where prognosis, particularly in pancreatic cancer patients, is poor.

Drain fluid biomarkers for the diagnosis of clinically relevant postoperative pancreatic fistula: a diagnostic accuracy systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Pancreatectomy is the only curative treatment available for pancreatic cancer and a necessity for patients with challenging pancreatic pathology. To optimize outcomes, postsurgical complications such as clinically relevant postoperative pancreatic fistula (CR-POPF) should be minimized. Central to this is the ability to predict and diagnose CR-POPF, potentially through drain fluid biomarkers. This study aimed to assess the utility of drain fluid biomarkers for predicting CR-POPF by conducting a diagnostic test accuracy systematic review and meta-analysis.

METHODS

Five databases were searched for relevant and original papers published from January 2000 to December 2021, with citation chaining capturing additional studies. The QUADAS-2 tool was used to assess the risk of bias and concerns regarding applicability of the selected studies.

RESULTS

Seventy-eight papers were included in the meta-analysis, encompassing six drain biomarkers and 30 758 patients with a CR-POPF prevalence of 17.42%. The pooled sensitivity and specificity for 15 cut-offs were determined. Potential triage tests (negative predictive value >90%) were identified for the ruling out of CR-POPF and included postoperative day 1 (POD1) drain amylase in pancreatoduodenectomy (PD) patients (300 U/l) and in mixed surgical cohorts (2500 U/l), POD3 drain amylase in PD patients (1000-1010 U/l) and drain lipase in mixed surgery groups (180 U/l). Notably, drain POD3 lipase had a higher sensitivity than POD3 amylase, while POD3 amylase had a higher specificity than POD1.

CONCLUSIONS

The current findings using the pooled cut-offs will offer options for clinicians seeking to identify patients for quicker recovery. Improving the reporting of future diagnostic test studies will further clarify the diagnostic utility of drain fluid biomarkers, facilitating their inclusion in multivariable risk-stratification models and the improvement of pancreatectomy outcomes.

A Simple Classification of Pancreatic Duct Size and Texture Predicts Postoperative Pancreatic Fistula: A classification of the International Study Group of Pancreatic Surgery

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to develop a classification system for pancreas-associated risk factors in pancreatoduodenectomy (PD).

SUMMARY BACKGROUND DATA

Postoperative pancreatic fistula (POPF) is the most relevant PD-associated complication. A simple standardized surgical reporting system based on pancreas-associated risk factors is lacking.

METHODS

A systematic literature search was conducted to identify studies investigating clinically relevant (CR) POPF (CR-POPF) and pancreas-associated risk factors after PD. A meta-analysis of CR-POPF rate for texture of the pancreas (soft vs not-soft) and main pancreatic duct (MPD) diameter was performed using the Mantel-Haenszel method. Based on the results, the International Study Group of Pancreatic Surgery (ISGPS) proposes the following classification: A, not-soft (hard) texture and MPD >3 mm; B, not-soft (hard) texture and MPD ≤3 mm; C, soft texture and MPD >3 mm; D, soft texture and MPD ≤3 mm. The classification was evaluated in a multi-institutional, international cohort.

RESULTS

Of the 2917 articles identified, 108 studies were included in the analyses. Soft pancreatic texture was significantly associated with the development of CR-POPF [odds ratio (OR) 4.24, 95% confidence interval (CI) 3.67-4.89, P < 0.01) following PD. Similarly, MPD diameter ≤3 mm significantly increased CR-POPF risk compared with >3 mm diameter MPDs (OR 3.66, 95% CI 2.62-5.12, P < 0.01). The proposed 4-stage system was confirmed in an independent cohort of 5533 patients with CR-POPF rates of 3.5%, 6.2%, 16.6%, and 23.2% for type A-D, respectively ( P < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

For future pancreatic surgical outcomes studies, the ISGPS recommends reporting these risk factors according to the proposed classification system for better comparability of results.

Positive drain fluid culture on postoperative day 1 predicts clinically relevant pancreatic fistula in early drain removal with higher drain fluid amylase after pancreaticoduodenectomy

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to clarify the risk factors of clinically relevant pancreatic fistula after early drain removal with higher drain fluid amylase after pancreaticoduodenectomy. Clinical evaluation of early drain removal with a higher drain fluid amylase after pancreaticoduodenectomy has been controversial. The safety and effectiveness have not been sufficiently examined.

METHODS

Between 2015 and 2020, prophylactic surgical drains were prospectively removed on postoperative day 4 regardless of drain fluid amylase level in 364 study-eligible patients who underwent pancreaticoduodenectomy. Patients were classified according to drain fluid amylase on postoperative day 1: 281 patients with drain fluid amylase <4,000 U/L, and 83 patients with drain fluid amylase ≥4,000 U/L.

RESULTS

Clinically relevant pancreatic fistula occurred in 40 of 364 enrolled patients (11.0%). In the entire cohort, male, positive postoperative day 1 drain fluid culture, and postoperative day 1 drain fluid amylase ≥4,000 U/L were independent risk factors for clinically relevant pancreatic fistula after early drain removal. When stratifying by 4,000 U/L of postoperative day 1 drain fluid amylase, the rate of clinically relevant pancreatic fistula in postoperative day 1 drain fluid amylase <4,000 U/L was significantly lower than that in postoperative day 1 drain fluid amylase ≥4,000 U/L (4% vs 35%, P < .001) after early drain removal. Moreover, in postoperative day 1 drain fluid amylase <4,000 U/L, positive postoperative day 1 drain fluid culture did not develop clinically relevant pancreatic fistula after early drain removal. However, in postoperative day 1 drain fluid amylase ≥4,000 U/L, multivariate analysis clarified that positive postoperative day 1 drain fluid culture was the only independent risk factor of clinically relevant pancreatic fistula after early drain removal (odds ratio 26.27, 95% confidence interval 5.59-123.56, P = .001).

CONCLUSION

Positive drain fluid culture on postoperative day 1 might predict clinically relevant pancreatic fistula in early drain removal with a higher drain fluid amylase.

Establishment and external validation of neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio in excluding postoperative pancreatic fistula after pancreatoduodenectomy

BACKGROUND

Factors excluding postoperative pancreatic fistula (POPF), facilitating early drain removal and hospital discharge represent a novel approach in patients undergoing enhanced recovery after pancreatic surgery. This study aimed to establish the relevance of neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR) in excluding POPF after pancreatoduodenectomy (PD).

METHODS

A prospectively maintained database of patients who underwent PD at two high-volume centres was used. Patients were divided into three cohorts (training, internal, and external validation). The primary endpoints of this study were accuracy, optimal timing, and cutoff values of NLR for excluding POPF after PD.

RESULTS

From 2012 to 2020, in a 2:1 ratio, 451 consecutive patients were randomly sampled as training (n = 301) and validation (n = 150) cohorts. Additionally, the external validation cohort included 197 patients between 2018 and 2020. POPF was diagnosed in 135 (20.8 per cent) patients. The 90-day mortality rate was 4.1 per cent. NLR less than 8.5 on postoperative day 3 (OR, 95 per cent c.i.) was significantly associated with the absence of POPF in the training (2.41, 1.19 to 4.88; P = 0.015), internal validation (5.59, 2.02 to 15.43; P = 0.001), and external validation (5.13, 1.67 to 15.76; P = 0.004) cohorts when adjusted for relevant clinical factors. Postoperative outcomes significantly differed using this threshold.

CONCLUSION

NLR less than 8.5 on postoperative day 3 may be a simple, independent, cost-effective, and easy-to-use criterion for excluding POPF.

Drain fluid biomarkers for prediction and diagnosis of clinically relevant postoperative pancreatic fistula: A narrative review

Clinically relevant postoperative pancreatic fistula (CR-POPF) has continued to compromise patient recovery post-pancreatectomy despite decades of research seeking to improve risk prediction and diagnosis. The current diagnostic criteria for CR-POPF requires elevated drain fluid amylase to present alongside POPF-related complications including infection, haemorrhage and organ failure. These worrying sequelae necessitate earlier and easily obtainable biomarkers capable of reflecting evolving CR-POPF. Drain fluid has recently emerged as a promising source of biomarkers as it is derived from the pancreas and hence, capable of reflecting its postoperative condition. The present review aims to summarise the current knowledge of CR-POPF drain fluid biomarkers and identify gaps in the field to invigorate future research in this critical area of clinical need. These findings may provide robust diagnostic alternatives for CR-POPF and hence, to clarify their clinical utility require further reports detailing their diagnostic and/or predictive accuracy.

Validation of the triple-checked criteria for drain management after pancreatectomy

BACKGROUND

Drain management is important for the detection and treatment of clinically relevant postoperative pancreatic fistula (CR-POPF). We previously established the triple-checked criteria for drain removal: drain fluid amylase (DFA) <5000 U/L on postoperative day (POD) 1 and DFA <3000 U/L on POD 3, or C-reactive protein <15 mg/dL on POD 3. This study aimed to validate the efficacy of the triple-checked criteria.

METHODS

In this study, 681 patients who underwent pancreatectomy were included. Drains were removed according to our previous criteria (sequentially checked criteria: DFA <5000 U/L on POD 1 and DFA <3000 U/L on POD 3) from 2012 to 2016 (control group) and the triple-checked criteria from 2017 to 2019 (intervention group).

RESULTS

The control group included 406 patients, and the intervention group included 275 patients. Significantly more patients (n = 237, 86.2%) met the triple-checked criteria in the intervention group, relative to the sequentially checked criteria for early drain removal policy (n = 309, 76.1%; P = .001). Sensitivity, accuracy, and negative predictive value were significantly higher in the intervention group than in the control group (P < .001). The incidence of CR-POPF was not significantly different (11.1% vs 13.8%, P = .285).

CONCLUSIONS

The triple-checked criteria contributed to effective drain removal after pancreatectomy without increasing CR-POPF.

Postoperative elevation of C-reactive protein levels and high drain fluid amylase output are strong predictors of pancreatic fistulas after distal pancreatectomy

BACKGROUND

The aim of the present study was to identify the predictors of postoperative pancreatic fistula (POPF) after distal pancreatectomy (DP).

METHODS

The records of 97 consecutive patients who underwent DP at Ehime University Hospital between June 2009 and August 2020 were retrospectively reviewed. Patient characteristics, preoperative blood biochemistry data, operative findings, and postoperative findings until postoperative day (POD) 3 were investigated as potential predictors of clinically relevant POPF (CR-POPF). The product of the drain fluid amylase (DFA) value (U/L) and the drainage amount (mL/day) was defined as DFA output (U/day).

RESULTS

Of 97 patients who underwent DP, 23 (23.7%) developed CR-POPF. On multivariate analyses, high C-reactive protein (CRP) levels on POD 3 (>14.0 mg/dL) and high DFA output on POD 3 (>34 U/day) were found to be independent predictors of CR-POPF (odds ratios, 7.580 and 4.751, respectively; 95% confidence intervals, 2.052-27.995 and 1.487-15.175, respectively). Furthermore, the CRP value was helpful for predicting delayed CR-POPF in patients without POPF on POD3, and DFA output was useful for predicting the development of CR-POPF in patients diagnosed with POPF on POD3.

CONCLUSION

Postoperative CRP values and DFA output may facilitate appropriate postoperative management after DP.

Evidence-based evaluation of abdominal drainage in pancreatic surgery

Pancreatic fistula is the most common and dreaded complication after pancreatic resection, responsible for high morbidity and mortality (2 to 30%). Prophylactic drainage of the operative site is usually put in place to decrease and/or detect postoperative pancreatic fistula (POPF) early. However, this policy is currently debated and the data from the literature are unclear. The goal of this update is to analyze the most recent evidence-based data with regard to prophylactic abdominal drainage after pancreatic resection (pancreatoduodenectomy [PD] or distal pancreatectomy [PD]). This systematic review of the literature between 1990 and 2020 sought to answer the following questions: should drainage of the operative site after pancreatectomy be routine or adapted to the risk of POPF? If a drainage is used, how long should it remain in the abdomen, what criteria should be used to decide to remove it, and what type of drainage should be preferred? Has the introduction of laparoscopy changed our practice? The literature seems to indicate that it is not possible to recommend the omission of routine drainage after pancreatic resection. By contrast, an approach based on the risk of POPF using the fistula risk score seems beneficial. When a drain is placed, early removal (within 5 days) seems feasible based on clinical, laboratory (C-reactive protein, leukocyte count, neutrophile/lymphocyte ratio, dosage and dynamic of amylase in the drains on D1, D3±D5) and radiological findings. This is in line with the development of enhanced recovery programs after pancreatic surgery. Finally, this literature review did not find any specific data relative to mini-invasive pancreatic surgery.