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Millbern Z, Trettin A, Wu R, Demmler M, Vinueza NR. Synthetic dyes: A mass spectrometry approach and applications. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2024; 43:327-344. [PMID: 36353972 DOI: 10.1002/mas.21818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2022] [Revised: 10/03/2022] [Accepted: 10/21/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Synthetic dyes are found in a wide variety of applications today, including but not limited to textiles, foods, and medicine. The analysis of these molecules is pertinent to several fields such as forensics, environmental monitoring, and quality control, all of which require the sensitivity and selectivity of analysis provided by mass spectrometry (MS). Recently, there has been an increase in the implementation of MS evaluation of synthetic dyes by various methods, with the majority of research thus far falling under electrospray ionization and moving toward direct ionization methods. This review covers an overview of the chemistry of synthetic dyes needed for the understanding of MS sample preparation and spectral results, current fields of application, ionization methods, and fragmentation trends and works that have been reported in recent years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zoe Millbern
- Department of Textile Engineering, Chemistry, and Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Alison Trettin
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Rachel Wu
- Department of Textile Engineering, Chemistry, and Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Morgan Demmler
- Department of Textile Engineering, Chemistry, and Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Nelson R Vinueza
- Department of Textile Engineering, Chemistry, and Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
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Geddes da Filicaia E, Evershed RP, Peggie DA. Review of recent advances on the use of mass spectrometry techniques for the study of organic materials in painted artworks. Anal Chim Acta 2023; 1246:340575. [PMID: 36764767 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2022.340575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2022] [Revised: 10/28/2022] [Accepted: 10/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
The study of painted artworks using scientific methods is fundamental for understanding the techniques used in their creation and their appropriate conservation. The ethical constraints involved in the handling of, and sampling from, these objects has steered recent developments in the field of Heritage science towards a range of new non-invasive/non-destructive spectroscopic techniques capable of providing important insights into their elemental or bulk chemical compositions. Due to the inherent complexities of heritage artefacts, however, their organic components are especially difficult to study in this way and their identification and degradation pathways are thus often best investigated using mass spectrometric (MS) techniques. The versatility, sensitivity and specificity of MS techniques are constantly increasing, with technological advances pushing the boundaries of their use in this field. The progress in the past ten years in the use of MS techniques for the analysis of paint media are described in the present review. While some historical context is included, the body of the review is structured around the five most widely used or emerging capabilities offered by MS. The first pertains to the use of spatially resolved MS to obtain chemical maps of components in cross-sections, which may yield information on both inorganic and organic materials, while the second area describes the development of novel sample preparation approaches for gas chromatography (GC)-MS to allow simultaneous analysis of a variety of components. The third focuses on thermally assisted analysis (either with direct MS or coupled with GC-MS), a powerful tool for studying macromolecules requiring zero (or minimal) sample pre-treatment. Subsequently, the use of soft ionisation techniques often combined with high-resolution MS for the study of peptides (proteomics) and other macromolecules (such as oligosaccharides and triglycerides) is outlined. The fifth area covers the advances in radiocarbon dating of painting components with accelerator MS (AMS). Lastly, future applications of other MS techniques to the study of paintings are mentioned; such as direct analysis in real time MS (DART-MS) and stable isotope ratio MS (IRMS). The latter, having proven its efficiency for the study of lipids in archaeological artefacts, is envisioned to become a valuable tool for this area, whereas DART-MS is already being utilised to study the surface composition of various museum objects. Rapid technological advances, resulting in increased sensitivity and selectivity of MS techniques, are opening up new approaches for paintings analysis, overcoming the fundamental hurdle of sample size available for destructive analysis. Importantly, while the last decade has seen proteomics applications come to the fore, this review aims to emphasise the wider potential of advanced MS techniques for the study of painting materials and their conservation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eugenia Geddes da Filicaia
- Scientific Department, National Gallery, Trafalgar Square, London, WC2N 5DN, UK; Organic Geochemistry Unit, Bristol Biogeochemistry Research Centre, School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock's Close, Bristol, BS8 1T, UK.
| | - Richard P Evershed
- Organic Geochemistry Unit, Bristol Biogeochemistry Research Centre, School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock's Close, Bristol, BS8 1T, UK
| | - David A Peggie
- Scientific Department, National Gallery, Trafalgar Square, London, WC2N 5DN, UK
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Sundberg B, Pause R, van der Werf I, Astefanei A, van den Berg K, van Bommel M. Analytical approaches for the characterization of early synthetic organic pigments for artists’ paints. Microchem J 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2021.106708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Sabatini F, Manariti A, Girolamo FD, Bonaduce I, Tozzi L, Rava A, Colombini MP, Lluveras-Tenorio A. Painting on polyurethane foam: “Composizione-Superficie Lunare” by Giulio Turcato. Microchem J 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2020.104872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Sabatini F, Degano I. Investigating the fragmentation pathways of β-naphthol pigments using liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2020; 34:e8789. [PMID: 32207178 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.8789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2020] [Revised: 03/19/2020] [Accepted: 03/21/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Today, β-naphthol pigments are among the largest and most widely used classes of synthetic organic pigments. Their application fields range from textiles, food and beverages, printing inks, plastics to paint formulations. Most of the research dealing with their study using mass spectrometry focuses on developing sensitive methods for their quantification or their removal from industrial wastewater. Their qualitative recognition in formulations, whose composition is undisclosed by manufacturers, has not been tackled yet. METHODS The collision-induced dissociation fragmentation pathways of 10 red and orange widely used pigments of the late 19th to the early 20th centuries, belonging to the β-naphthol and Naphthol AS classes, were characterized using liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry in negative-ion mode. RESULTS The fragmentation pathways of these pigments were determined, and the pigments are discussed in relation to their chemical structures. The results were used to determine the composition in terms of the secondary components of one of our reference commercial formulations, characterized by a complex mixture of synthesis by-products. CONCLUSIONS By coupling the high sensitivity of high-resolution mass spectrometry with an efficient chromatographic separation optimized for the analysis of β-naphthol dyes and pigments, we provided a method for the qualitative recognition of this class of molecules in unknown formulations possibly used in different kinds of industrial and synthetic products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Sabatini
- Department of Chemistry and Industrial Chemistry, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Ilaria Degano
- Department of Chemistry and Industrial Chemistry, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
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Degano I. Liquid chromatography: Current applications in Heritage Science and recent developments. PHYSICAL SCIENCES REVIEWS 2019. [DOI: 10.1515/psr-2018-0009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Liquid chromatography has been widely employed in the analysis of materials in Heritage Science, due to its ease of use and relatively low-cost, starting from thin layer chromatography of organic binders in paintings, of archaeological waxes and resins, and finally of natural dyes. High performance systems employing analytical columns containing packed stationary phases gradually supplanted thin layer chromatography (TLC) in the field, since the separation, detection and quantitation of specific species contained in a sample in the field of Cultural Heritage requires selective, sensitive and reliable methods, allowing for analysing a wide range of samples, in terms of analyte types and concentration range. Today, the main applications of High-Performance Liquid Chromatography in this field are related to the separation and detection of dyestuffs in archaeological materials and paint samples by reversed-phase liquid chromatography with suitable detectors. Proteomics and lipidomics are also gaining momentum in the last decade, thanks to the increased availability of instrumentation and procedures. In this chapter, principles and theory of liquid chromatography will be presented. A short review of the instrumentation needed to perform an analysis will be provided and some general principles of sample preparation revised. More details on the detection systems, the chromatographic set-ups and specific sample treatment strategies will be provided in the individual sections dedicated to the applications to Heritage Science of the main types of liquid chromatographic techniques. In particular, the applications of thin layer chromatography will be shortly described in paragraph 4.1. The applications of Reverse Phase High Performance Liquid Chromatography (RP-HPLC) will be discussed in detail in paragraph 4.2, including the analysis of natural and synthetic dyes and pigments and the profiling of lipid materials. The possibility to perform proteomic analysis will be presented and a link to the relevant Chapter in this book provided. The most important and promising applications of ion exchange chromatography (IC) will be discussed in paragraph 4.3. Finally, size exclusion and gel permeation chromatography (GPC) will be presented in paragraph 4.4, including applications to the study of polymeric network formation in paint binders, of the phenomena related to the depolymerisation of cellulose in paper and of cellulose and lignin in wood samples. The possibility to study synthetic polymers as artists’ materials and restorers’ tools by size exclusion (SEC) or gel permeation (GPC) will also be introduced. In the conclusions, future perspectives of liquid chromatography in Heritage Science will be briefly discussed.
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Sultana N, Gunning S, Furst SJ, Garrard KP, Dow TA, Vinueza NR. Direct analysis of textile dyes from trace fibers by automated microfluidics extraction system coupled with Q-TOF mass spectrometer for forensic applications. Forensic Sci Int 2018; 289:67-74. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2018.05.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2017] [Revised: 05/01/2018] [Accepted: 05/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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Sabatini F, Giugliano R, Degano I. Photo-oxidation processes of Rhodamine B: A chromatographic and mass spectrometric approach. Microchem J 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2018.04.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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Degano I, La Nasa J. Trends in High Performance Liquid Chromatography for Cultural Heritage. Top Curr Chem (Cham) 2016; 374:20. [DOI: 10.1007/s41061-016-0020-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2015] [Accepted: 03/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Kowalczuk M, Adamus G. Mass spectrometry for the elucidation of the subtle molecular structure of biodegradable polymers and their degradation products. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2016; 35:188-198. [PMID: 25869251 DOI: 10.1002/mas.21474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Contemporary reports by Polish authors on the application of mass spectrometric methods for the elucidation of the subtle molecular structure of biodegradable polymers and their degradation products will be presented. Special emphasis will be given to natural aliphatic (co)polyesters (PHA) and their synthetic analogues, formed through anionic ring-opening polymerization (ROP) of β-substituted β-lactones. Moreover, the application of MS techniques for the evaluation of the structure of biodegradable polymers obtained in ionic and coordination polymerization of cyclic ethers and esters as well as products of step-growth polymerization, in which bifunctional or multifunctional monomers react to form oligomers and eventually long chain polymers, will be discussed. Furthermore, the application of modern MS techniques for the assessment of polymer degradation products, frequently bearing characteristic end groups that can be revealed and differentiated by MS, will be discussed within the context of specific degradation pathways. Finally, recent Polish accomplishments in the area of mass spectrometry will be outlined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marek Kowalczuk
- Polish Academy of Sciences, Centre of Polymer and Carbon Materials, 34. M. Curie-Skłodowska St., Zabrze, 41-800, Poland
- School of Biology, Chemistry and Forensic Science, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Wolverhampton, Wolverhampton, WV1 1SB, UK
| | - Grażyna Adamus
- Polish Academy of Sciences, Centre of Polymer and Carbon Materials, 34. M. Curie-Skłodowska St., Zabrze, 41-800, Poland
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Schmidt EM, Franco MF, Cuelbas CJ, Zacca JJ, de Carvalho Rocha WF, Borges R, de Souza W, Eberlin MN, Correa DN. Characterization of anti-theft devices directly from the surface of banknotes via easy ambient sonic spray ionization mass spectrometry. Sci Justice 2015; 55:285-90. [DOI: 10.1016/j.scijus.2015.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2015] [Revised: 04/08/2015] [Accepted: 04/12/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Leme DM, Primo FL, Gobo GG, da Costa CRV, Tedesco AC, de Oliveira DP. Genotoxicity assessment of reactive and disperse textile dyes using human dermal equivalent (3D cell culture system). JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART A 2015; 78:466-480. [PMID: 25785560 DOI: 10.1080/15287394.2014.999296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Thousands of dyes are marketed daily for different purposes, including textile dyeing. However, there are several studies reporting attributing to dyes deleterious human effects such as DNA damage. Humans may be exposed to toxic dyes through either ingestion of contaminated waters or dermal contact with colored garments. With respect to dermal exposure, human skin equivalents are promising tools to assess in vitro genotoxicity of dermally applied chemicals using a three-dimensional (3D) model to mimic tissue behavior. This study investigated the sensitivity of an in-house human dermal equivalent (DE) for detecting genotoxicity of textile dyes. Two azo (reactive green 19 [RG19] and disperse red 1[DR1]) dyes and one anthraquinone (reactive blue 2 [RB2]) dye were analyzed. RG19 was genotoxic for DE in a dose-responsive manner, whereas RB2 and DR1 were nongenotoxic under the conditions tested. These findings are not in agreement with previous genotoxicological assessment of these dyes carried out using two-dimensional (2D) cell cultures, which showed that DR1 was genotoxic in human hepatoma cells (HepG2) and RG19 was nongenotoxic for normal human dermal fibroblasts (NHDF). These discrepant results probably may be due to differences between metabolic activities of each cell type (organ-specific genotoxicity, HepG2 and fibroblasts) and the test setup systems used in each study (fibroblasts cultured at 2D and three-dimensional [3D] culture systems). Genotoxicological assessment of textile dyes in context of organ-specific genotoxicity and using in vitro models that more closely resemble in vivo tissue architecture and physiology may provide more reliable estimates of genotoxic potential of these chemicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Morais Leme
- a Departamento de Biologia Celular , Universidade Federal do Paraná (UFPR) , Curitiba , Paraná , Brazil
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Gernert C, Grotemeyer J. Photodissociation at various wavelengths: fragmentation studies of oxazine 170 using nanosecond laser pulses. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY (CHICHESTER, ENGLAND) 2015; 21:599-608. [PMID: 26307739 DOI: 10.1255/ejms.1368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The fragmentation of oxazine 170, a rhodamine-type dye, has been investigated by means of collisions and photodissociation with visible and ultraviolet radiation in a Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometer. Because of an improved experimental setup, the photodissociation processes of stored ions are measured with high intensity with respect to the absorbed photons. By isotope labelling and quantum chemical calculations, the various fragmentation mechanisms are investigated. It is shown that the most important intermediate ion structure leading to the various ionic products is an even-electron azarine cation. Several new fragmentation mechanisms have been unveiled for the first time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claus Gernert
- Christian-Albrechts Universität zu Kiel, Max-Eyth-Straße 1, 24118 Kiel, Germany. - kiel.de
| | - Jürgen Grotemeyer
- Christian- Albrechts Universitäät zu Kiel, Max-Eyth-Straße 1, 24118 Kiel, Germany. - kiel.de
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Fragmentation of deuterated rhodamine B derivates by laser and collisional activation in an FT-ICR mass spectrometer. Anal Bioanal Chem 2013; 405:7061-9. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-013-7078-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2013] [Revised: 05/15/2013] [Accepted: 05/17/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Clemen M, Gernert C, Peters J, Grotemeyer J. Fragmentation reactions of labeled and untabeled Rhodamine B in a high-resolution Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometer. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY (CHICHESTER, ENGLAND) 2013; 19:135-139. [PMID: 24261085 DOI: 10.1255/ejms.1216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
The fragmentation reactions of Rhodamine B have been investigated by the use of electrospray ionization mass spectra in a high mass resolving ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometer. Using high resolution, it could be shown that the loss of 44 mass units from the molecular ion is due to propane; the measured masses were inconsistent with loss of carbon dioxide. These conclusions are supported using deuterium-labeled Rhodamine B. This sample again only shows the loss of fully-deuterated propane verifying the high-resolution data. These findings illustrate very clearly that the conclusions based solely on low resolution spectra were false. The general implication on fragmentations of aromatic acids is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Clemen
- Institute for Physical Chemistry, Christian-Albrechts University at Kiel, Kiel, Germany
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