Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Anatomical Correlation of Human Temporal Lobe Landmarks in 3D Euclidean Space: A Study of Control and Epilepsy Disease Subjects

Epilepsy is a common neurological disorder of great importance to patients and society. Sclerosis is associated with neuronal loss and neurodegeneration in specific regions of the hippocampal formation. The hippocampal formation and temporal lobe are not the only regions affected; the chronicity of the disease extends the involvement to other brain regions. Our aim is to investigate the spatial relationship of anatomical structures in both control (CO) and epileptic (EP) subjects using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in order to determine changes in epileptic patients compared to healthy anatomical structures. Anatomical landmarks are identified and registered in 3D space to provide a reference for the brain structures; the 3D network is described quantitatively using planar distances, as well as measuring rostrocaudal and Euclidean distances. The planar and rostrocaudal distances are the most remarkable discriminators between CO and EP groups, especially between structures located in and outside the temporal lobe. The study achieves a 100% discrimination between the control group and the epileptic group with the discriminant use of two distances: D_PL, Hpe/Cde and D_RC, As/cae. Finally, discriminates 100% between the three study groups, control group CO, extratemporal lobe epilepsy ETLE and temporal lobe epilepsy TLE, with a total of 12 distances distributed in the three axes of space. This study allows us to hope for a future application, its clinical utility may allow us not only to identify processes (in our case, epilepsy), but also to obtain parameters of the evolution of the disease.

Processing of cell assemblies in the lateral entorhinal cortex

There is evidence that olfactory cortex responds to its afferent input with the generation of cell assemblies: collections of principal neurons that fire together over a time scale of tens of ms. If such assemblies form an odor representation, then a fundamental question is how each assembly then induces neuronal activity in downstream structures. We have addressed this question in a detailed model of superficial layers of lateral entorhinal cortex, a recipient of input from olfactory cortex and olfactory bulb. Our results predict that the response of the fan cell subpopulation can be approximated by a relatively simple Boolean process, somewhat along the lines of the McCulloch/Pitts scheme; this is the case because of the sparsity of recurrent excitation amongst fan cells. However, because of recurrent excitatory connections between layer 2 and layer 3 pyramidal cells, synaptic and probably also gap junctional, the response of pyramidal cell subnetworks cannot be so approximated. Because of the highly structured anatomy of entorhinal output projections, our model suggests that downstream targets of entorhinal cortex (dentate gyrus, hippocampal CA3, CA1, piriform cortex, olfactory bulb) receive differentially processed information.

The thalamic midline nucleus reuniens: potential relevance for schizophrenia and epilepsy

Anatomical, electrophysiological and behavioral studies in rodents have shown that the thalamic midline nucleus reuniens (RE) is a crucial link in the communication between hippocampal formation (HIP, i.e., CA1, subiculum) and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), important structures for cognitive and executive functions. A common feature in neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative brain diseases is a dysfunctional connectivity/communication between HIP and mPFC, and disturbances in the cognitive domain. Therefore, it is assumed that aberrant functioning of RE may contribute to behavioral/cognitive impairments in brain diseases characterized by cortico-thalamo-hippocampal circuit dysfunctions. In the human brain the connections of RE are largely unknown. Yet, recent studies have found important similarities in the functional connectivity of HIP-mPFC-RE in humans and rodents, making cautious extrapolating experimental findings from animal models to humans justifiable. The focus of this review is on a potential involvement of RE in schizophrenia and epilepsy.

Reorganization of Basolateral Amygdala-Subiculum Circuitry in Mouse Epilepsy Model

In this study, we investigated the reorganized basolateral amygdala (BLA)-subiculum pathway in a status epilepticus (SE) mouse model with epileptic episodes induced by pilocarpine. We have previously observed a dramatic loss of neurons in the CA1-3 fields of the hippocampus in epileptic mice. Herein, we observed a 43-57% reduction in the number of neurons in the BLA of epileptic mice. However, injection of an anterograde tracer, Phaseolus vulgaris leucoagglutinin (PHA-L) into the BLA indicated 25.63% increase in the number of PHA-L-immunopositive terminal-like structures in the ventral subiculum (v-Sub) of epileptic mice as compared to control mice. These data suggest that the projections from the basal nucleus at BLA to the vSub in epileptic mice are resistant to epilepsy-induced damage. Consequently, these epileptic mice exhibit partially impairment but not total loss of context-dependent fear memory. Epileptic mice also show increased c-Fos expression in the BLA and vSub when subjected to contextual memory test, suggesting the participation of these two brain areas in foot shock-dependent fear conditioning. These results indicate the presence of functional neural connections between the BLA-vSub regions that participate in learning and memory in epileptic mice.

Pathophysiogenesis of mesial temporal lobe epilepsy: is prevention of damage antiepileptogenic?

Temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) is frequently associated with hippocampal sclerosis, possibly caused by a primary brain injury that occurred a long time before the appearance of neurological symptoms. This type of epilepsy is characterized by refractoriness to drug treatment, so to require surgical resection of mesial temporal regions involved in seizure onset. Even this last therapeutic approach may fail in giving relief to patients. Although prevention of hippocampal damage and epileptogenesis after a primary event could be a key innovative approach to TLE, the lack of clear data on the pathophysiological mechanisms leading to TLE does not allow any rational therapy. Here we address the current knowledge on mechanisms supposed to be involved in epileptogenesis, as well as on the possible innovative treatments that may lead to a preventive approach. Besides loss of principal neurons and of specific interneurons, network rearrangement caused by axonal sprouting and neurogenesis are well known phenomena that are integrated by changes in receptor and channel functioning and modifications in other cellular components. In particular, a growing body of evidence from the study of animal models suggests that disruption of vascular and astrocytic components of the blood-brain barrier takes place in injured brain regions such as the hippocampus and piriform cortex. These events may be counteracted by drugs able to prevent damage to the vascular component, as in the case of the growth hormone secretagogue ghrelin and its analogues. A thoroughly investigation on these new pharmacological tools may lead to design effective preventive therapies.

Corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) in the hippocampus of the mouse pilocarpine model of status epilepticus

We investigated the cellular localization and progressive changes of corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) in the mouse hippocampus, during and after pilocarpine induced status epilepticus (PISE) and subsequent epileptogenesis. We found that CRF gene expression was up-regulated significantly at 2h during and 1d after PISE in comparison to control mice. Immunohistochemical analysis showed that the number of CRF and Fos immunoreactive cells was increased significantly in the strata oriens and pyramidale of CA1 area and in the stratum pyramidale of CA3 area at 2h during and 1d after PISE. CRF was induced in calbindin (CB) or calretinin (CR) immunoreactive interneurons in stratum oriens at 2h during PISE. It suggests that induced CRF may be related to the over excitation of hippocampal neurons and occurrence of status epilepticus. It may also cause excitoneurotoxicity and delayed loss of CA3 and CA1 pyramidal neurons, leading to the onset of epilepsy.

Impaired extinction of fear and maintained amygdala-hippocampal theta synchrony in a mouse model of temporal lobe epilepsy

PURPOSE

The relationship between epilepsy and fear has received much attention. However, seizure-modulated fear and physiologic or structural correlates have not been examined systematically, and the underlying basics of network levels remain unclear to date. Therefore, this project was set up to characterize the neurophysiologic basis of seizure-related fear and the contribution of the amygdala-hippocampus system.

METHODS

The experimental strategy was composed of the following steps: (1) use of the mouse pilocarpine model of temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE); (2) behavioral analyses of anxiety states in the elevated plus maze test, light-dark avoidance test, and Pavlovian fear conditioning; and (3) probing neurophysiologic activity patterns in amygdala-hippocampal circuits in freely behaving mice.

RESULTS

Our results displayed no significant differences in basic anxiety levels comparing mice that developed spontaneous recurrent seizures (SRS) and controls. Furthermore, conditioned fear memory retrieval was not influenced in SRS mice. However, during fear memory extinction, SRS mice showed an extended freezing behavior and a maintained amygdala-hippocampal theta frequency synchronization compared to controls.

DISCUSSION

These results indicate specific alterations in conditioned fear behavior and related neurophysiologic activities in the amygdala-hippocampal network contributing to impaired fear memory extinction in mice with TLE. Clinically, the nonextinguished fear memories may well contribute to the experience of fear in patients with TLE.