Activation of group III metabotropic glutamate receptors by endogenous glutamate protects against glutamate-mediated excitotoxicity in the hippocampus in vivo

mGluR7: The new player protecting the central nervous system

Metabotropic glutamate receptor 7 (mGluR7) belongs to the family of type III mGluR receptor, playing an important part in the central nervous system (CNS) through response to neurotransmitter regulation, reduction of excitatory toxicity, and early neuronal development. Drugs targeting mGluR7 (mGluR7 agonists, antagonists, and allosteric modulators) may be among the most promising agents for the treatment of CNS disorders, such as psychiatric disorders, neurodegenerative diseases, and neurodevelopmental impairments, though these potential therapies are at early stages and the data are still limited. In this review, we summarized the structure and function of mGluR7 and discussed recent progress on mGluR7 agonists and antagonists. A deeper understanding of mGluR7 will contribute to uncovering the molecular mechanisms of neuroprotection and providing a theoretical basis for the formulation of therapeutic strategies.

Metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) in epileptogenesis: an update on abnormal mGluRs signaling and its therapeutic implications

Epilepsy is a neurological disorder characterized by high morbidity, high recurrence, and drug resistance. Enhanced signaling through the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate is intricately associated with epilepsy. Metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) are G protein-coupled receptors activated by glutamate and are key regulators of neuronal and synaptic plasticity. Dysregulated mGluR signaling has been associated with various neurological disorders, and numerous studies have shown a close relationship between mGluRs expression/activity and the development of epilepsy. In this review, we first introduce the three groups of mGluRs and their associated signaling pathways. Then, we detail how these receptors influence epilepsy by describing the signaling cascades triggered by their activation and their neuroprotective or detrimental roles in epileptogenesis. In addition, strategies for pharmacological manipulation of these receptors during the treatment of epilepsy in experimental studies is also summarized. We hope that this review will provide a foundation for future studies on the development of mGluR-targeted antiepileptic drugs.

Molecular mechanisms of ischemia and glutamate excitotoxicity

Excitotoxicity is classically defined as the neuronal damage caused by the excessive release of glutamate, and subsequent activation of excitatory plasma membrane receptors. In the mammalian brain, this phenomenon is mainly driven by excessive activation of glutamate receptors (GRs). Excitotoxicity is common to several chronic disorders of the Central Nervous System (CNS) and is considered the primary mechanism of neuronal loss of function and cell death in acute CNS diseases (e.g. ischemic stroke). Multiple mechanisms and pathways lead to excitotoxic cell damage including pro-death signaling cascade events downstream of glutamate receptors, calcium (Ca2+) overload, oxidative stress, mitochondrial impairment, excessive glutamate in the synaptic cleft as well as altered energy metabolism. Here, we review the current knowledge on the molecular mechanisms that underlie excitotoxicity, emphasizing the role of Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (NAD) metabolism. We also discuss novel and promising therapeutic strategies to treat excitotoxicity, highlighting recent clinical trials. Finally, we will shed light on the ongoing search for stroke biomarkers, an exciting and promising field of research, which may improve stroke diagnosis, prognosis and allow better treatment options.

Motor Alterations Induced by Chronic 4-Aminopyridine Infusion in the Spinal Cord In vivo: Role of Glutamate and GABA Receptors

Motor neuron (MN) degeneration is the pathological hallmark of MN diseases, a group of neurodegenerative disorders clinically manifested as muscle fasciculations and hyperreflexia, followed by paralysis, respiratory failure, and death. Ample evidence supports a role of glutamate-mediated excitotoxicity in motor death. In previous work we showed that stimulation of glutamate release from nerve endings by perfusion of the K⁺-channel blocker 4-aminopyridine (4-AP) in the rat hippocampus induces seizures and neurodegeneration, and that AMPA infusion in the spinal cord produces paralysis and MN death. On these bases, in this work we have tested the effect of the chronic infusion of 4-AP in the spinal cord, using implanted osmotic minipumps, on motor activity and on MN survival, and the mechanisms underlying this effect. 4-AP produced muscle fasciculations and motor deficits assessed in two motor tests, which start 2–3 h after the implant, which ameliorated spontaneously within 6–7 days, but no neurodegeneration. These effects were prevented by both AMPA and NMDA receptors blockers. The role of GABA_A receptors was also explored, and we found that chronic infusion of bicuculline induced moderate MN degeneration and enhanced the hyperexcitation produced by 4-AP. Unexpectedly, the GABA_AR agonist muscimol also induced motor deficits and failed to prevent the MN death induced by AMPA. We conclude that motor alterations induced by chronic 4-AP infusion in the spinal cord in vivo is due to ionotropic glutamate receptor overactivation and that blockade of GABAergic neurotransmission induces MN death under chronic conditions. These results shed light on the role of glutamatergic and GABAergic neurotransmission in the regulation of MN excitability in the spinal cord.

Epilepsy and hippocampal neurodegeneration induced by glutamate decarboxylase inhibitors in awake rats

Glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD), the enzyme responsible for GABA synthesis, requires pyridoxal phosphate (PLP) as a cofactor. Thiosemicarbazide (TSC) and γ-glutamyl-hydrazone (PLPGH) inhibit the free PLP-dependent isoform (GAD65) activity after systemic administration, leading to epilepsy in mice and in young, but not in adult rats. However, the competitive GAD inhibitor 3-mercaptopropionic acid (MPA) induces convulsions in both immature and adult rats. In the present study we tested comparatively the epileptogenic and neurotoxic effects of PLPGH, TSC and MPA, administered by microdialysis in the hippocampus of adult awake rats. Cortical EEG and motor behavior were analyzed during the next 2h, and aspartate, glutamate and GABA were measured by HPLC in the microdialysis-collected fractions. Twenty-four hours after drug administration rats were fixed for histological analysis of the hippocampus. PLPGH or TSC did not affect the motor behavior, EEG or cellular morphology, although the extracellular concentration of GABA was decreased. In contrast, MPA produced intense wet-dog shakes, EEG epileptiform discharges, a >75% reduction of extracellular GABA levels and remarkable neurodegeneration of the CA1 region, with >80% neuronal loss. The systemic administration of the NMDA glutamate receptor antagonist MK-801 30 min before MPA did not prevent the MPA-induced epilepsy but significantly protected against its neurotoxic effect, reducing neuronal loss to <30%. We conclude that in adult awake rats, drugs acting on PLP availability have only a weak effect on GABA neurotransmission, whereas direct GAD inhibition produced by MPA induces hyperexcitation leading to epilepsy and hippocampal neurodegeneration. Because this degeneration was prevented by the blockade of NMDA receptors, we conclude that it is due to glutamate-mediated excitotoxicity consequent to disinhibition of the hippocampal excitatory circuits.

Group III metabotropic glutamate receptors: pharmacology, physiology and therapeutic potential

Glutamate, the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system (CNS), exerts neuromodulatory actions via the activation of metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptors. There are eight known mGlu receptor subtypes (mGlu1-8), which are widely expressed throughout the brain, and are divided into three groups (I-III), based on signalling pathways and pharmacological profiles. Group III mGlu receptors (mGlu4/6/7/8) are primarily, although not exclusively, localised on presynaptic terminals, where they act as both auto- and hetero-receptors, inhibiting the release of neurotransmitter. Until recently, our understanding of the role of individual group III mGlu receptor subtypes was hindered by a lack of subtype-selective pharmacological tools. Recent advances in the development of both orthosteric and allosteric group III-targeting compounds, however, have prompted detailed investigations into the possible functional role of these receptors within the CNS, and revealed their involvement in a number of pathological conditions, such as epilepsy, anxiety and Parkinson's disease. The heterogeneous expression of group III mGlu receptor subtypes throughout the brain, as well as their distinct distribution at glutamatergic and GABAergic synapses, makes them ideal targets for therapeutic intervention. This review summarises the advances in subtype-selective pharmacology, and discusses the individual roles of group III mGlu receptors in physiology, and their potential involvement in disease.

Energy substrates protect hippocampus against endogenous glutamate-mediated neurodegeneration in awake rats

Excitotoxicity due to excessive glutamatergic neurotransmission is a well-studied phenomenon that has been related to the mechanisms of neuronal death occurring in some disorders of the CNS. We have previously shown that the intrahippocampal perfusion by microdialysis of 4-aminopyridine (4-AP) in rats stimulates endogenous glutamate release from nerve endings and this results in excitotoxic effects such as immediate seizures and delayed neuronal death, due to the overactivation of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors. To study whether mitochondrial energy dysfunction and oxidative stress could be involved in this 4-AP-induced excitotoxicity, we evaluated in awake rats the protective effect of several energy substrates and antioxidant compounds, using microdialysis, electroencephalographic (EEG) recording and histological analysis. The 4-AP-induced behavioral and EEG seizures, which progressed to status epilepticus in about 30 min, were prevented by the NMDA receptor antagonist MK-801, whereas acetoacetate, DL- and L-β-hydroxybutyrate did not protect against seizures but increased the latency to the onset of status epilepticus; pyruvate, α-ketoglutarate and glutathione ethyl ester did not show any protective effect. 4-AP also produced nearly complete loss of pyramidal neurons in CA1 and CA3 regions of the ipsilateral hippocampus 24 h after the experiment. MK-801 totally prevented this neuronal death and the energy substrates tested protected by about 50%, whereas the antioxidants showed only a weak protection. We conclude that ketone bodies possess weak anticonvulsant effects and that energy metabolism impairment plays a more important role than oxidative stress in the delayed hippocampal neurodegeneration resulting from the excitotoxic action of 4-AP mediated by endogenous glutamate.

Brain energy metabolism in glutamate-receptor activation and excitotoxicity: role for APC/C-Cdh1 in the balance glycolysis/pentose phosphate pathway

Recent advances in the field of brain energy metabolism strongly suggest that glutamate receptor-mediated neurotransmission is coupled with molecular signals that switch-on glucose utilization pathways to meet the high energetic requirements of neurons. Failure to adequately coordinate energy supply for neurotransmission ultimately results in a positive amplifying loop of receptor over-activation leading to neuronal death, a process known as excitotoxicity. In this review, we revisited current concepts in excitotoxic mechanisms, their involvement in energy substrate utilization, and the signaling pathways that coordinate both processes. In particular, we have focused on the novel role played by the E3 ubiquitin ligase, anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C)-Cdh1, in cell metabolism. Our laboratory identified 6-phosphofructo-2-kinase/fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase-3 (PFKFB3) -a key glycolytic-promoting enzyme- as an APC/C-Cdh1 substrate. Interestingly, APC/C-Cdh1 activity is inhibited by over-activation of glutamate receptors through a Ca(2+)-mediated mechanism. Furthermore, by inhibiting APC/C-Cdh1 activity, glutamate-receptors activation promotes PFKFB3 stabilization, leading to increased glycolysis and decreased pentose-phosphate pathway activity. This causes a loss in neuronal ability to regenerate glutathione, triggering oxidative stress and delayed excitotoxicity. Further investigation is critical to identify novel molecules responsible for the coupling of energy metabolism with glutamatergic neurotransmission and excitotoxicity, as well as to help developing new therapeutic strategies against neurodegeneration.