Selection of stably transfected cells expressing a high level of fetal muscle nicotinic receptors

Neuromuscular Transmission in a Biological Context

Neuromuscular transmission is the process by which motor neurons activate muscle contraction and thus plays an essential role in generating the purposeful body movements that aid survival. While many features of this process are common throughout the Animal Kingdom, such as the release of transmitter in multimolecular "quanta," and the response to it by opening ligand-gated postsynaptic ion channels, there is also much diversity between and within species. Much of this diversity is associated with specialization for either slow, sustained movements such as maintain posture or fast but brief movements used during escape or prey capture. In invertebrates, with hydrostatic and exoskeletons, most motor neurons evoke graded depolarizations of the muscle which cause graded muscle contractions. By contrast, vertebrate motor neurons trigger action potentials in the muscle fibers which give rise to all-or-none contractions. The properties of neuromuscular transmission, in particular the intensity and persistence of transmitter release, reflect these differences. Neuromuscular transmission varies both between and within individual animals, which often have distinct tonic and phasic subsystems. Adaptive plasticity of neuromuscular transmission, on a range of time scales, occurs in many species. This article describes the main steps in neuromuscular transmission and how they vary in a number of "model" species, including C. elegans , Drosophila , zebrafish, mice, and humans. © 2024 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 14:5641-5702, 2024.

Neurotransmitter GABA activates muscle but not α7 nicotinic receptors

Cys-loop receptors are neurotransmitter-activated ion channels involved in synaptic and extrasynaptic transmission in the brain and are also present in non-neuronal cells. As GABAA and nicotinic receptors (nAChR) belong to this family, we explored by macroscopic and single-channel recordings whether the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA has the ability to activate excitatory nAChRs. GABA differentially activates nAChR subtypes. It activates muscle nAChRs, with maximal peak currents of about 10% of those elicited by acetylcholine (ACh) and 15-fold higher EC50 with respect to ACh. At the single-channel level, the weak agonism is revealed by the requirement of 20-fold higher concentration of GABA for detectable channel openings, a major population of brief openings, and absence of clusters of openings when compared with ACh. Mutations at key residues of the principal binding-site face of muscle nAChRs (αY190 and αG153) affect GABA activation similarly as ACh activation, whereas a mutation at the complementary face (εG57) shows a selective effect for GABA. Studies with subunit-lacking receptors show that GABA can activate muscle nAChRs through the α/δ interface. Interestingly, single-channel activity elicited by GABA is similar to that elicited by ACh in gain-of-function nAChR mutants associated to congenital myasthenic syndromes, which could be important in the progression of the disorders due to steady exposure to serum GABA. In contrast, GABA cannot elicit single-channel or macroscopic currents of α7 or the chimeric α7-serotonin-type 3 receptor, a feature important for preserving an adequate excitatory/inhibitory balance in the brain as well as for avoiding activation of non-neuronal receptors by serum GABA.

Functional characterization of the α5(Asn398) variant associated with risk for nicotine dependence in the α3β4α5 nicotinic receptor

Smoking is a major cause for premature death. Work aimed at identifying genetic factors that contribute to nicotine addiction has revealed several single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) that are linked to smoking-related behaviors such as nicotine dependence and level of smoking. One of these SNPs leads to an aspartic acid-to-asparagine substitution in the nicotinic receptor α5 subunit at amino acid position 398 [rs16969968; α5(Asn398)]. The α5 subunit is expressed both in the brain and in the periphery. In the brain, it associates with the α4 and β2 subunits to form α4β2α5 receptors. In the periphery, the α5 subunit combines with the α3 and β4 subunits to form the major ganglionic postsynaptic nicotinic receptor subtype. The α3β4α5 receptor regulates a variety of autonomic responses such as control of cardiac rate, blood pressure, and perfusion. In this paradigm, the α5(Asn398) variant may act by regulating autonomic responses that may affect nicotine intake by humans. Here, we have investigated the effect of the α5(Asn398) variant on the function of the α3β4α5 receptor. The wild-type or variant α5 subunits were coexpressed with the α3 and β4 subunits in human embryonic kidney 293 cells. The properties of the receptors were studied using whole-cell and single-channel electrophysiology. The data indicate that the introduction of the α5(Asn398) mutation has little effect on the pharmacology of receptor activation, receptor desensitization, or single-channel properties. We propose that the effect of the α5(Asn398) variant on nicotine use is not mediated by an action on the physiological or pharmacological properties of the α3β4α5 subtype.

A synthetic 18-norsteroid distinguishes between two neuroactive steroid binding sites on GABAA receptors

In the absence of GABA, neuroactive steroids that enhance GABA-mediated currents modulate binding of [35S]t-butylbicyclophosphorothionate in a biphasic manner, with enhancement of binding at low concentrations (site NS1) and inhibition at higher concentrations (site NS2). In the current study, compound (3alpha,5beta,17beta)-3-hydroxy-18-norandrostane-17-carbonitrile (3alpha5beta-18-norACN), an 18-norsteroid, is shown to be a full agonist at site NS1 and a weak partial agonist at site NS2 in both rat brain membranes and heterologously expressed GABAA receptors. 3alpha5beta-18-norACN also inhibits the action of a full neurosteroid agonist, (3alpha,5alpha,17beta)-3-hydroxy-17-carbonitrile (3alpha5alphaACN), at site NS2. Structure-activity studies demonstrate that absence of the C18 methyl group and the 5beta-reduced configuration both contribute to the weak agonist effect at the NS2 site. Electrophysiological studies using heterologously expressed GABAA receptors show that 3alpha5beta-18-norACN potently and efficaciously potentiates the GABA currents elicited by low concentrations of GABA but that it has low efficacy as a direct activator of GABAA receptors. 3alpha5beta-18-norACN also inhibits direct activation of GABAA receptors by 3alpha5alphaACN. 3alpha5beta-18-norACN also produces loss of righting reflex in tadpoles and mice, indicating that action at NS1 is sufficient to mediate the sedative effects of neurosteroids. These data provide insight into the pharmacophore required for neurosteroid efficacy at the NS2 site and may prove useful in the development of selective agonists and antagonists for neurosteroid sites on the GABAA receptor.

Neuroactive steroid interactions with voltage-dependent anion channels: lack of relationship to GABA(A) receptor modulation and anesthesia

Neuroactive steroids modulate the function of gamma-aminobutyric acid type A (GABA(A)) receptors in brain; this is the presumed basis of their action as anesthetics. In a previous study using the neuroactive steroid analog, (3alpha,5beta)-6-azi-3-hydroxypregnan-20-one (6-AziP), as a photoaffinity-labeling reagent, we showed that voltage-dependent anion channel-1 (VDAC-1) was the predominant protein labeled in brain. Antisera to VDAC-1 were shown to coimmunoprecipitate GABA(A) receptors, suggesting a functional relationship between steroid binding to VDAC-1 and modulation of GABA(A) receptor function. This study examines the contribution of steroid binding to VDAC proteins to modulation of GABA(A) receptor function and anesthesia. Photolabeling of 35-kDa protein with [(3)H]6-AziP was reduced 85% in brain membranes prepared from VDAC-1-deficient mice but was unaffected by deficiency of VDAC-3. The photolabeled 35-kDa protein in membranes from VDAC-1-deficient mice was identified by two-dimensional electrophoresis and electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry as VDAC-2. The absence of VDAC-1 or VDAC-3 had no effect on the ability of neuroactive steroids to modulate GABA(A) receptor function as evidenced by radioligand ([(35)S] t-butylbicyclophosphorothionate) binding or by electrophysiological studies. Electrophysiological studies also showed that neuroactive steroids modulate GABA(A) receptor function normally in VDAC-2-deficient fibroblasts transfected with alpha(1)beta(2)gamma(2) GABA(A) receptor subunits. Finally, the neuroactive steroid pregnanolone [(3alpha,5beta)-3-hydroxypregnan-20-one] produced anesthesia (loss of righting reflex) in VDAC-1- and VDAC-3-deficient mice, and there was no difference in the recovery time between the VDAC-deficient mice and wild-type controls. These data indicate that neuroactive steroid binding to VDAC-1, -2, or -3 is unlikely to mediate GABA(A) receptor modulation or anesthesia.

Phosphorylation and cytoskeletal anchoring of the acetylcholine receptor by Src class protein-tyrosine kinases. Activation by rapsyn

Src class protein-tyrosine kinases bind to and phosphorylate the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor of skeletal muscle. This study provided evidence for the functional importance of Src kinases in regulating the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor at the neuromuscular junction. Three Src class kinases, Fyn, Fyk, and Src, each formed a complex with the endplate-specific cytoskeletal protein rapsyn. In addition, cellular phosphorylation by each kinase was stimulated by rapsyn in heterologous transfected cells. Several lines of evidence supported rapsyn as a substrate for Src kinases. Most importantly, rapsyn regulation of Fyn, Fyk, and Src resulted in phosphorylation of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor beta and delta subunits and anchoring of the receptor to the cytoskeleton. Both nicotinic acetylcholine receptor phosphorylation and cytoskeletal anchoring were blocked by the Src kinase-selective inhibitor herbimycin A. Rapsyn alone also induced a modest increase in nicotinic acetylcholine receptor phosphorylation and cytoskeletal translocation. However, inhibition by herbimycin A and a catalytically inactive dominant negative Src demonstrated that the effects of rapsyn were mediated by endogenous Src kinases. These data support the importance of Src class kinases for stabilization of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor at the endplate during synaptic differentiation at the neuromuscular junction.

Rapsyn clusters neuronal acetylcholine receptors but is inessential for formation of an interneuronal cholinergic synapse

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (AChRs) are clustered at high density in the postsynaptic membranes of skeletal neuromuscular junctions and cholinergic interneuronal synapses. A cytoplasmic protein, rapsyn, is essential for AChR clustering in muscle. Here, we asked whether rapsyn mediates neuronal AChR clustering at cholinergic synapses in a mammalian sympathetic ganglion, the superior cervical ganglion (SCG). Several observations supported this possibility: (1) AChR clusters containing the alpha3-5 and beta2 subunits, homologs of the muscle AChR subunits, are present at SCG synapses; (2) rapsyn RNA is readily detectable in the SCG; and (3) expression of recombinant rapsyn in heterologous cells induces aggregation of coexpressed neuronal AChR subunits. However, rapsyn protein was undetectable at ganglionic synaptic sites. Moreover, aggregates of neuronal AChRs induced in heterologous cells by full-length rapsyn remained intracellular, whereas rapsyn-induced clusters of muscle AChRs reached the cell surface. Additional studies revealed a second rapsyn RNA species in SCG generated by alternative splicing and competent to encode a novel short rapsyn isoform. However, this isoform clustered neither neuronal nor muscle AChRs in heterologous cells. Most telling, the number, size, and density of AChR clusters in SCG did not differ significantly between neonatal mice bearing a targeted mutation of the rapsyn gene and littermate controls. Thus, rapsyn is dispensable for clustering of ganglionic neuronal nicotinic AChRs.

The channel opening rate of adult- and fetal-type mouse muscle nicotinic receptors activated by acetylcholine

1. In this paper, we examine acetylcholine (ACh)-induced currents in quail fibroblast cell lines expressing either the fetal (Q-F18) or the adult (Q-A33) complement of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunits derived from mouse skeletal muscle. Pulses of ACh were applied to outside-out patches of cell membrane by means of a fast perfusion system at concentrations from 100 nM to 10 mM. We obtained current records with intracellular potentials of -60 and +40 mV. The goal of this study was to estimate the channel opening rate. 2. By fitting sums of exponentials to averaged responses, we estimated the rate of development of the current on the application of acetylcholine. The rate constant of the predominant exponential component (the on-rate) ranges over 3 orders of magnitude, from around 100 s-1 (fetal) at low concentrations ACh to over 100,000 s-1 (fetal and adult) at the highest concentrations. 3. We establish that our measurement of the on-rate is not limited by technical constraints, and can therefore be related to the rate constants of a kinetic scheme. Our observations are consistent with a model having a rate-limiting channel opening step with a forward rate constant (beta) of 80,000 s-1 on average for adult receptors and 60,000 s-1 for fetal receptors, and a minimum opening to closing ratio (beta/alpha) of around 33 (adult) or 50 (fetal). The channel opening rate, beta, varies from around 30,000 s-1 to well over 100,000 s-1 for different patches. The large variation cannot all be ascribed to errors of measurement, but indicates patch to patch variation.