Relationship between the thermotolerance and the increase of DnaK and GroEL synthesis in Enterococcus faecalis ATCC19433

Thermal Endurance by a Hot-Spring-Dwelling Phylogenetic Relative of the Mesophilic Paracoccus

High temperature growth/survival was revealed in a phylogenetic relative (SMMA_5) of the mesophilic Paracoccus isolated from the 78 to 85°C water of a Trans-Himalayan sulfur-borax spring. After 12 h at 50°C, or 45 min at 70°C, in mineral salts thiosulfate (MST) medium, SMMA_5 retained ~2% colony forming units (CFUs), whereas comparator Paracoccus had 1.5% and 0% CFU left at 50°C and 70°C, respectively. After 12 h at 50°C, the thermally conditioned sibling SMMA_5_TC exhibited an ~1.5 time increase in CFU count; after 45 min at 70°C, SMMA_5_TC had 7% of the initial CFU count. 1,000-times diluted Reasoner's 2A medium, and MST supplemented with lithium, boron, or glycine-betaine, supported higher CFU-retention/CFU-growth than MST. Furthermore, with or without lithium/boron/glycine-betaine, a higher percentage of cells always remained metabolically active, compared with what percentage formed single colonies. SMMA_5, compared with other Paracoccus, contained 335 unique genes: of these, 186 encoded hypothetical proteins, and 83 belonged to orthology groups, which again corresponded mostly to DNA replication/recombination/repair, transcription, secondary metabolism, and inorganic ion transport/metabolism. The SMMA_5 genome was relatively enriched in cell wall/membrane/envelope biogenesis, and amino acid metabolism. SMMA_5 and SMMA_5_TC mutually possessed 43 nucleotide polymorphisms, of which 18 were in protein-coding genes with 13 nonsynonymous and seven radical amino acid replacements. Such biochemical and biophysical mechanisms could be involved in thermal stress mitigation which streamline the cells' energy and resources toward system-maintenance and macromolecule-stabilization, thereby relinquishing cell-division for cell-viability. Thermal conditioning apparently helped inherit those potential metabolic states which are crucial for cell-system maintenance, while environmental solutes augmented the indigenous stability-conferring mechanisms. IMPORTANCE For a holistic understanding of microbial life's high-temperature adaptation, it is imperative to explore the biology of the phylogenetic relatives of mesophilic bacteria which get stochastically introduced to geographically and geologically diverse hot spring systems by local geodynamic forces. Here, in vitro endurance of high heat up to the extent of growth under special (habitat-inspired) conditions was discovered in a hot-spring-dwelling phylogenetic relative of the mesophilic Paracoccus species. Thermal conditioning, extreme oligotrophy, metabolic deceleration, presence of certain habitat-specific inorganic/organic solutes, and potential genomic specializations were found to be the major enablers of this conditional (acquired) thermophilicity. Feasibility of such phenomena across the taxonomic spectrum can well be paradigm changing for the established scopes of microbial adaptation to the physicochemical extremes. Applications of conditional thermophilicity in microbial process biotechnology may be far reaching and multifaceted.

Adaptation to Adversity: the Intermingling of Stress Tolerance and Pathogenesis in Enterococci

Enterococcus is a diverse and rugged genus colonizing the gastrointestinal tract of humans and numerous hosts across the animal kingdom. Enterococci are also a leading cause of multidrug-resistant hospital-acquired infections. In each of these settings, enterococci must contend with changing biophysical landscapes and innate immune responses in order to successfully colonize and transit between hosts. Therefore, it appears that the intrinsic durability that evolved to make enterococci optimally competitive in the host gastrointestinal tract also ideally positioned them to persist in hospitals, despite disinfection protocols, and acquire new antibiotic resistances from other microbes. Here, we discuss the molecular mechanisms and regulation employed by enterococci to tolerate diverse stressors and highlight the role of stress tolerance in the biology of this medically relevant genus.

Adaptation of Lactobacillus acidophilus to Thermal Stress Yields a Thermotolerant Variant Which Also Exhibits Improved Survival at pH 2

Loss in probiotic viability upon exposure to stressful storage and transport conditions has plagued the probiotic market worldwide. Lactobacillus acidophilus is an important probiotic that is added to various functional foods. It is known to be fairly labile and susceptible to temperature variations that it encounters during processing and storage which increases production cost. It has been repeatedly demonstrated that pre-exposure to sub-lethal doses of stress, particularly, temperature and pH, leads to improved survival of various probiotics when they subsequently encounter the same stress of a much greater magnitude. Attempts to adapt L. acidophilus to temperatures as high as 65 °C to arrive at a thermotolerant variant have not been reported previously. To improve viability at elevated temperatures, we gradually adapted the L. acidophilus NCFM strain to survival at 65 °C for 40 min. Following adaptation, the variant showed a 2-log greater survival compared to wild-type at 65 °C. Interestingly, this thermotolerant variant also demonstrated a 2-log greater stability compared to wild-type at pH 2.0. The improved pH and temperature stress tolerance exhibited by this variant remained unaltered even when the strain was lyophilized. Moreover, the thermotolerant variant demonstrated improved stability compared to wild-type when stored for up to a week at 37 and 42 °C. Probiotic properties of the variant such as adherence to epithelial cells and antibacterial activity remained unaltered. This strain can potentially help address the issue of significant loss in viable cell counts of L. acidophilus which is typically encountered during probiotic manufacture and storage.

Low-pH adaptation and the acid tolerance response of Bifidobacterium longum biotype longum

Bifidobacteria are one of the main microbial inhabitants of the human colon. Usually administered in fermented dairy products as beneficial microorganisms, they have to overcome the acidic pH found in the stomach during the gastrointestinal transit to be able to colonize the lower parts of the intestine. The mechanisms underlying acid response and adaptation in Bifidobacterium longum biotype longum NCIMB 8809 and its acid-pH-resistant mutant B. longum biotype longum 8809dpH were studied. Comparison of protein maps, and protein identification by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry analysis, allowed us to identify nine different proteins whose production largely changed in the mutant strain. Furthermore, the production of 47 proteins was modulated by pH in one or both strains. These included general stress response chaperones and proteins involved in transcription and translation as well as in carbohydrate and nitrogen metabolism, among others. Significant differences in the levels of metabolic end products and in the redox status of the cells were also detected between the wild-type strain and its acid-pH-resistant mutant in response to, or as a result of, adaptation to acid. Remarkably, the results of this work indicated that adaptation and response to low pH in B. longum biotype longum involve changes in the glycolytic flux and in the ability to regulate the internal pH. These changes were accompanied by a higher content of ammonium in the cytoplasm, likely coming from amino acid deamination, and a decrease of the bile salt hydrolase activity.

Transcriptional analysis of the groE and dnaK heat-shock operons of Enterococcus faecalis

Enterococcus faecalis is able to survive in extremely adverse conditions, and its ability to resist stress is considered a key virulence attribute. Here, we conducted a detailed transcriptional analysis of the groE and dnaK operons of E. faecalis. The dnaK operon is comprised of four genes (hrcA-grpE-dnaK-dnaJ) preceded by two conserved CIRCE sequences. The dnaK operon is expressed from a sigmaA-type promoter located upstream of hrcA and multiple transcripts are detectable, possibly due to mRNA processing. The groE operon (groES-groEL) is transcribed as a single mRNA from a sigmaA-type promoter located immediately upstream of a CIRCE element. Induction of dnaK and groEL occurs in response to heat shock and exposure to NaCl, SDS and H(2)O(2).

Oral microbial heat-shock proteins and their potential contributions to infections

The oral cavity is a complex ecosystem in which several hundred microbial species normally cohabit harmoniously. However, under certain special conditions, the growth of some micro-organisms with a pathogenic potential is promoted, leading to infections such as dental caries, periodontal disease, and stomatitis. The physiology and pathogenic properties of micro-organisms are influenced by modifications in environmental conditions that lead to the synthesis of specific proteins known as the heat-shock proteins (HSPs). HSPs are families of highly conserved proteins whose main role is to allow micro-organisms to survive under stress conditions. HSPs act as molecular chaperones in the assembly and folding of proteins, and as proteases when damaged or toxic proteins have to be degraded. Several pathological functions have been associated with these proteins. Many HSPs of oral micro-organisms, particularly periodontopathogens, have been identified, and some of their properties-including location, cytotoxicity, and amino acid sequence homology with other HSPs-have been reported. Since these proteins are immunodominant antigens in many human pathogens, studies have recently focused on the potential contributions of HSPs to oral diseases. The cytotoxicity of some bacterial HSPs may contribute to tissue destruction, whereas the presence of common epitopes in host proteins and microbial HSPs may lead to autoimmune responses. Here, we review the current knowledge regarding HSPs produced by oral micro-organisms and discuss their possible contributions to the pathogenesis of oral infections.

Thermal inactivation of Enterococcus faecium: effect of growth temperature and physiological state of microbial cells

AIMS

To provide data on the effects on culture temperature and physiological state of cells on heat resistance of Enterococcus faecium, which may be useful in establishing pasteurization procedures.

METHODS AND RESULTS

The heat resistance of this Ent. faecium (ATCC 49624 strain) grown at different temperatures was monitored at various stages of growth. In all cases, the bacterial cells in the logarithmic phase of growth were more heat sensitive. For cells which had entered in the stationary phase, D70 values of 0.53 min at 5 degrees C, 0.74 min at 10 degrees C, 0.83 min at 20 degrees C, 0.79 min at 30 degrees C, 0.63 min at 37 degrees C, 0.48 min at 40 degrees C and 0.41 min at 45 degrees C were found. By extending the incubation times cells were more heat resistant as stationary phase progressed, although a different pattern was observed for cells grown at different temperatures. At the lower temperatures heat resistance increased progressively, reaching D70 values of 1.73 min for cells incubated at 5 degrees C for 50 days and 1.04 min for those grown at 10 degrees C for 16 days. At other temperatures assayed heat resistance became stable for late stationary phase cells, reaching D70 values of 1.05, 1.08 and 1.01 min for cultures incubated at 20, 30 and 37 degrees C. Heat resistance of cells obtained at higher temperatures, 40 and 45 degrees C, was significantly lower, with D70 values of 0.76 and 0.67 min, respectively. Neither the growth temperature nor the growth phase modified the z-values significantly.

CONCLUSIONS

D70 values obtained for Ent. faecium (ATCC 49624) varies from 0.33 to 1.73 min as a function of culture temperature and physiological state of cells. However, z values calculated were not significantly influenced by these factors. A mean value of 4.50 +/- 0.39 degrees C was found.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

Overall results strongly suggest that, to establish heat processing conditions of pasteurized foods ensuring elimination of Ent. faecium, it is advisable to take into account the complex interaction of growth temperature and growth phase of cells acting on bacterial thermal resistance.

Physiological and molecular aspects of bile salt response in Enterococcus faecalis

Analysis of the susceptibility and the acquisition of tolerance in Enterococus faecalis towards bile salts showed a nearly instantaneous killing effect and yielded evidence for homologous tolerance as well as for cross-protections. Two-dimensional (2-D) electrophoresis revealed 45 proteins which are amplified in response to the bile salt treatment. These include a set of seven proteins, the synthesis of which is increased not only with the bile salts but also with multiple sublethal stresses of various nature. Characterisation of the latter (called general stress proteins) showed that at least five of them are related to resistance to bile salts, heat, ethanol, oxidative and alkaline pH stresses and are probably involved in cross-protection development. On the other hand, random mutagenesis of E. faecalis allowed the isolation of 10 bile salt-sensitive mutants. Their characterisation revealed that the mutation loci corresponded to genes related to DNA repair, oxidative response, transcriptional regulation, dGTP hydrolysis, membrane composition or cell wall synthesis. Further characterisation of one mutant revealed that the insertion within the E. faecalis sagA gene led to morphology changes, to perturbations of cell division and to a decrease of the resistance towards several independent physicochemical stresses.

Heat resistance in liquids of Enterococcus spp., Listeria spp., Escherichia coli, Yersinia enterocolitica, Salmonella spp. and Campylobacter spp

The aim of the work was to collect, evaluate, summarize and compare heat resistance data reported for Campylobacter, Enterococcus, Escherichia, Listeria, Salmonella and Yersinia spp. The work was limited to resistance in liquids with pH values 6-8. Results obtained under similar experimental conditions were sought. Thermal destruction lines for the various bacterial groups studied were constructed using log10 D values and treatment temperatures. There was a good linear relationship between log10 D and temperature with Escherichia coli, listerias and salmonellas. For campylobacters, enterococci and yersinias the relationships were weaker but, nevertheless, present. Using the slopes of the lines and their 95% confidence limits, z values and their 95% confidence limits were calculated. z values were compared with z values obtained from reports. The equations for the lines were also used for calculation of predicted means of D values at various treatment temperatures. 95% confidence limits on predicted means of D values and on predicted individual D values were also calculated. Lines and values are shown in figures and tables. Differences in heat resistance noted between and within the bacterial groups studied are discussed.

The Enterococcus faecalis gene encoding the novel general stress protein Gsp62

The Enterococcus faecalis general stress protein Gsp62 was purified using two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and its 25 N-terminal amino acid sequence determined. Analysis of the corresponding gene revealed that the gsp62 product is a 172 aa protein. Transcriptional analysis of gsp62 gave evidence for a monocistronic mRNA, the synthesis of which was induced at the onset of stationary phase and in response to heat shock, acid pH, detergents (i.e. SDS or bile salts), ethanol, tert-butyl hydroperoxide, sodium chloride and, to a lesser extent, hydrogen peroxide. 5' rapid amplification of cDNA ends by PCR experiments showed that gsp62 transcription initiates 30 nt upstream of the ATG start codon. Although gsp62 expression was induced in response to various stresses, its disruption had no significant effect on the cell survival after each individual stress. Two-dimensional protein gels from wild-type and mutant cells revealed no pleiotropic effect of the mutation on protein synthesis. Transcriptional fusions with the lacL lacM beta-galactosidase genes showed that an inverted repeat located upstream of the promoter is required for transcriptional induction by environmental stresses but not by entrance into stationary phase. Two distinct mechanisms responding to different signals are thus involved in gsp62 induction.

Identification and characterization of gsp65, an organic hydroperoxide resistance (ohr) gene encoding a general stress protein in Enterococcus faecalis

The Enterococcus faecalis general stress protein Gsp65 has been purified from two-dimensional gel electrophoresis. Determination of its N-terminal sequence and characterization of the corresponding gene revealed that the gsp65 product is a 133-amino-acid protein sharing homologies with organic hydroperoxide resistance (Ohr) proteins. Transcriptional analysis of gsp65 gave evidence for a monocistronic mRNA initiated 52 nucleotides upstream of the ATG start codon and for an induction in response to hydrogen peroxide, heat shock, acid pH, detergents, ethanol, sodium chloride, and tert-butylhydroperoxide (tBOOH). A gsp65 mutant showed increased sensitivity to the organic hydroperoxide tBOOH and to ethanol.

Identification of general stress genes in Enterococcus faecalis

The susceptibility and the acquisition of tolerance of E. faecalis ATCC 19433 to heat, ethanol, bile salts, NaCl, H2O2 and pH shifts were determined. During exposure to these environmental stresses, protein synthesis analysed by 2-D electrophoresis revealed 167 stress proteins. Six stress protein were found to be induced by at least six of the eight treatments and considered to be general stress proteins (Gsp). Western blotting identified two of these Gsp as DnaK and GroEL. Analysis of the four other Gsp revealed that at least two of them were not previously described.