Structural analysis of the mouse c-Ha-ras gene promoter

Isocitrate dehydrogenase 1 is downregulated during early skin tumorigenesis which can be inhibited by overexpression of manganese superoxide dismutase

Isocitrate dehydrogenase 1 (IDH1), a cytosolic enzyme that converts isocitrate to alpha-ketoglutarate, has been shown to be dysregulated during tumorigenesis. However, at what stage of cancer development IDH1 is dysregulated and how IDH1 may affect cell transformation and tumor promotion during early stages of cancer development are unclear. We used a skin cell transformation model and mouse skin epidermal tissues to study the role of IDH1 in early skin tumorigenesis. Our studies demonstrate that both the tumor promoter TPA and UVC irradiation decreased expression and activity levels of IDH1, not IDH2, in the tumor promotable JB6 P+ cell model. Skin epidermal tissues treated with dimethylbenz[α]anthracene/TPA also showed decreases in IDH1 expression and activity. In non-promotable JB6 P-cells, IDH1 was upregulated upon TPA treatment, whereas IDH2 was maintained at similar levels with TPA treatment. Interestingly, IDH1 knockdown enhanced, whereas IDH1 overexpression suppressed, TPA-induced cell transformation. Finally, manganese superoxide dismutase overexpression suppressed tumor promoter induced decreases in IDH1 expression and mitochondrial respiration, while intracellular alpha-ketoglutarate levels were unchanged. These results suggest that decreased IDH1 expression in early stage skin tumorigenesis is highly correlated with tumor promotion. In addition, oxidative stress might contribute to IDH1 inactivation, because manganese superoxide dismutase, a mitochondrial antioxidant enzyme, blocked decreases in IDH1 expression and activity.

Regulatory elements in the first intron of the mouse Ha-ras gene

The Ha-ras gene is one of the three oncogenes (Ha-ras, Ki-ras, and N-ras) of the ras superfamily of small G proteins. The p21ras proteins encoded by the ras genes are key proteins involved in the transduction of signals from membrane receptor-tyrosine kinases to downstream targets. The ras genes seem to play a ubiquitous role in the control of cell proliferation and cell differentiation. At the same time, ras genes may perform specific differentiated functions in certain cell types. Little is known about the regulation of expression of the Ha-ras gene. The first intron of the Ha-ras gene has been reported to be highly conserved between human and rodent. We investigated the role that this intron may play in the regulation of expression of Ha-ras. The promoter region of the Ha-ras gene exhibits characteristics of a housekeeping gene. Deletion analysis shows the existence of an enhancer-type element in the 5' region of the first intron (intron 0). DNase 1 footprinting experiments reveal five sites that interact with nuclear proteins from fibroblast and epithelial cell lines. Deletion and site-directed mutagenesis of three of these sites show that two are involved in a positive effect and one in a negative effect on the regulation of expression of the mouse Ha-ras gene.

Ha-ras p21-GTP levels remain constant during primary keratinocyte differentiation

Several lines of evidence that indicate that mutation of the Ha-ras oncogene is the initiating event in mouse skin carcinogenesis. Keratinocytes known to possess a mutated Ha-ras have been shown to be resistant to differentiation. Thus, overstimulation of the Ha-ras signaling pathway appears to block normal keratinocyte differentiation, and we hypothesized that for normal keratinocytes to terminally differentiate, the Ha-ras signaling cascade must be turned off. In the present studies, we measured the level and activity state of Ha-ras p21 protein in cultured keratinocytes undergoing calcium-induced differentiation. We have employed Western blot analysis to demonstrate that Ha-ras p21 protein levels remain constant during primary newborn and adult keratinocyte differentiation. The overall level of Ha-ras p21 was higher in immortalized, benign, and malignant mouse keratinocyte cell lines than in normal keratinocytes but did not change within each cell type when subjected to differentiating conditions. The percentage of Ha-ras p21 protein in its active, GTP-bound form also remained unchanged during primary adult keratinocyte differentiation and in immortalized, benign, and malignant keratinocytes subjected to differentiating conditions. Our results indicate that terminal differentiation of primary adult mouse keratinocytes occurred in the presence of constant levels of Ha-ras p21-GTP, suggesting that the Ha-ras signaling pathway may be blocked at a point distal to a step involving the Ha-ras p21 protein itself.

The G-C specific DNA binding drug, mithramycin, selectively inhibits transcription of the C-MYC and C-HA-RAS genes in regenerating liver

Expression of the c-myc and c-Ha-ras protooncogenes is dramatically increased in regenerating rat liver as an early response to partial hepatectomy. Nuclear runon transcription studies confirm that the increased c-myc and c-Ha-ras mRNA levels in regenerating livers reflect transcriptional activation of these genes. Mithramycin, a G-C specific DNA binding drug, prevents the increased transcriptional activity of c-myc and c-Ha-ras genes after hepatectomy but does not alter the transcriptional activity of the beta-actin gene. Continuous exposure of rats to mithramycin after hepatectomy prevents the increase in both c-myc and c-Ha-ras expression and blocks the increased cellular proliferation characteristic of regeneration. The delayed increase in c-myc and c-Ha-ras gene expression is associated with a delay in cellular proliferation. The inhibition of c-myc and c-Ha-ras transcription by mithramycin, the delay in cellular proliferation, and the ability of mithramycin to prevent protein binding to the c-myc promoter, suggest that the increased expression of these genes is a necessary component of liver regeneration.

Identification of a DNA structural motif that includes the binding sites for Sp1, p53 and GA-binding protein

We have analyzed predicted helical twist angles in the 21-bp repeat region of the SV40 genome, using a semi-empirical model previously shown to accurately predict backbone conformations. Unexpectedly, the pattern of twist angles characteristic of the six GC-boxes is repeated an additional five times at positions that are regularly interspersed with the six GC-box sequences. These patterns of helical twist angles are associated with a second, imperfectly-repeated sequence motif, the TR-box 5'-RRNTRGG. Unrelated DNA sequences that interact with trans-acting factors (p53 and GABP) exhibit similar twist angle patterns, due to elements of the general form 5'-RRRYRRR that occur as interspersed arrays with a spacing of 10-11 bp and an offset of 4-6 bp. Arrays of these elements, which we call pyrimidine sandwich elements (PSEs), may play an important role in the interaction of trans-acting factors with DNA control regions. In 13 human proto-oncogenes analyzed, we identified 31 PSE arrays, 11 of which were in the 5'-flanking regions of the genes. The most extensive array was found in the promoter region of the K-ras gene. Extending over 80 bp of DNA, it contained 16 PSEs that showed an average deviation from the SV40 criterion pattern of angles of only 1.2 degrees.