Using deep learning to predict beam-tunable Pareto optimal dose distribution for intensity-modulated radiation therapy

A deep learning model to predict dose distributions for breast cancer radiotherapy

PURPOSE

In this work, we propose to develop a 3D U-Net-based deep learning model that accurately predicts the dose distribution for breast cancer radiotherapy.

METHODS

This study included 176 breast cancer patients, divided into training, validating and testing sets. A deep learning model based on the 3D U-Net architecture was developed to predict dose distribution, which employed a double encoder combination attention (DECA) module, a cross stage partial + Resnet + Attention (CRA) module, a difficulty perception and a critical regions loss. The performance and generalization ability of this model were evaluated by the voxel mean absolute error (MAE), several clinically relevant dosimetric indexes and 3D gamma passing rates.

RESULTS

Our model accurately predicted the 3D dose distributions with each dosage level mirroring the clinical reality in shape. The generated dose-volume histogram (DVH) matched with the ground truth curve. The total dose error of our model was below 1.16 Gy, complying with clinical usage standards. When compared to other exceptional models, our model optimally predicted eight out of nine regions, and the prediction errors for the first planning target volume (PTV1) and PTV2 were merely 1.03 Gy and 0.74 Gy. Moreover, the mean 3%/3 mm 3D gamma passing rates for PTV1, PTV2, Heart and Lung L achieved 91.8%, 96.4%, 91.5%, and 93.2%, respectively, surpassing the other models and meeting clinical standards.

CONCLUSIONS

This study developed a new deep learning model based on 3D U-Net that can accurately predict dose distributions for breast cancer radiotherapy, which can improve the quality and planning efficiency.

Artificial intelligence (AI) applications in improvement of IMRT and VMAT radiotherapy treatment planning processes: A systematic review

INTRODUCTION

Radiotherapy is a common option in the treatment of many types of cancer. Intensity-Modulated Radiation Therapy (IMRT) and Volumetric-Modulated Arc Therapy (VMAT) are the latest radiotherapy techniques. However, clinicians face problems due to these techniques' complexity and time-consuming planning. Various studies have pointed out the importance and role of artificial intelligence (AI) in radiotherapy and accelerating and improving its quality. This research explores different AI methods in different fields of IMRT and VMAT. This study evaluated both quantitative and qualitative methods used within the reviewed articles.

METHODS

Various articles were reviewed from Google Scholar, Science Direct, and PubMed databases between 2018 and 2024. According to PRISMA 2020 guidelines, study selection processes, screening, and inclusion and exclusion criteria were defined. The critical Appraisal Skill Program qualitative checklist tool was used for the qualitative evaluation of articles.

RESULTS

26 articles met the inclusion among the 33 articles obtained. The search procedure was displayed using the PRISMA flow diagram. The evaluation of the articles shows the automation of various treatment planning processes by AI methods and their better performance than traditional methods. The qualitative evaluation of studies has demonstrated the high quality of all studies. The lowest score obtained from the qualitative evaluation of the article is 7 out of 9.

CONCLUSION

AI methods used in radiotherapy reduce time and increase prediction accuracy. They also work better than other methods in different areas, such as dose prediction, treatment design, and dose delivery.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

Healthcare providers should consider integrating artificial intelligence technologies into their practice to optimize treatment planning and enhance patient care in radiation therapy. Additionally, fostering collaboration between radiotherapy experts and artificial intelligence specialists can significantly improve the development and application of AI technologies in this field.

Dose prediction for cervical cancer in radiotherapy based on the beam channel generative adversarial network

Background

Existing deep learning methods, such as generative adversarial network (GAN) technology, face challenges when dealing with mixed datasets, which involve a combination of Intensity Modulated Radiotherapy (IMRT) and Volumetric Modulated Arc Therapy (VMAT). This issue significantly complicates the application of dose prediction in the field of radiotherapy. In this study, we propose a novel approach called beam channel GAN (Bc-GAN) to address the task of radiation dose prediction for mixed datasets. Bc-GAN introduces a dose prediction calculation method that requires less precision. By defining an approximate range for dose prediction, Bc-GAN limits the physical range of GAN prediction, resulting in more reasonable dose distribution predictions.

Methods

We adopt a beam angle weighting method to determine the beam angle in the dose calculation. The dose of the beam with the highest weight is calculated using medical images and is then inputted into the artificial intelligence dose prediction model as the input channel. Additionally, we collect data from a total of 346 patients with Cervical Cancer (CC) for dataset. After cleaning the data, we exclude 51 cases with incomplete organ delineation, leaving us with 295 cases (IMRT: VMAT = 137:158) randomly divided into three sets: the training set, the validation set, and the test set, with proportions of 205:60:30, respectively. The assessment of model predictions was conducted via an analysis of dose distributions on the tomographic plane, dose volume histogram (DVH), and dosimetric parameters within the target zones and organs at risk (OAR).

Results

After DVH analysis, minimal discrepancy was found between predicted and actual dose distributions in PTV and OAR. The predicted distribution aligned with clinical standards. Dosimetric parameters for PTV were generally lower in the predicted model, except for homogeneity index (HI) (0.238 ± 0.024, P = 0.017) and Dmax (53.599 ± 0.710 Gy, P = 1.8e-05). The prediction model varied in estimating doses for six organs. Specifically, small intestine showed higher V20 (67.92 ± 51.64 %, P = 0.019) and V30 (57.171 ± 1.213 %, P = 0.024) than manual planning. A similar trend was seen in colon's V30 (37.13 ± 61.14 %, P = 0.016). However, predicted bladder V30 (87.51 ± 41.44 %, P = 2.03e-16) was lower, indicating significant dosimetric differences.

Conclusion

Overall, this study presents an innovative prediction method for CC in radiotherapy using the Bc-GAN model, addressing the challenges posed by different radiotherapy techniques. The proposed approach allows IMRT and VMAT in radiotherapy to be used as training sets, enabling the potential for large-scale engineering and commercialization applications of artificial intelligence (AI). The Bc-GAN-based prediction method for CC in radiotherapy not only reduces the amount of data needed for the training set but also expedites the model generation process. This approach can be applied to guide the development of clinical radiation therapy plans. Furthermore, future studies should consider extending the dose prediction method to encompass other types of tumors.

Application and progress of artificial intelligence in radiation therapy dose prediction

Radiation therapy (RT) nowadays is a main treatment modality of cancer. To ensure the therapeutic efficacy of patients, accurate dose distribution is often required, which is a time-consuming and labor-intensive process. In addition, due to the differences in knowledge and experience among participants and diverse institutions, the predicted dose are often inconsistent. In last several decades, artificial intelligence (AI) has been applied in various aspects of RT, several products have been implemented in clinical practice and confirmed superiority. In this paper, we will review the research of AI in dose prediction, focusing on the progress in deep learning (DL).

A predicted three-dimensional dose sequence based treatment planning optimization method for gynecologic IMRT

In knowledge-based treatment planning (KBTP) for intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT), the quality of the plan is dependent on the sophistication of the predicted dosimetric information and its application. In this paper, we propose a KBTP method that based on the effective and reasonable utilization of a three-dimensional (3D) dose prediction on planning optimization. We used an organs-at-risk (OARs) dose distribution prediction model to create a voxel-based dose sequence based optimization objective for OARs doses. This objective was used to reformulate a traditional fluence map optimization model, which involves a tolerable spatial re-assignment of the predicted dose distribution to the OAR voxels based on their current doses' positions at a sorted dose sequencing. The feasibility of this method was evaluated with ten gynecology (GYN) cancer IMRT cases by comparing its generated plan quality with the original clinical plan. Results showed feasible plan by proposed method, with comparable planning target volume (PTV) dose coverage and greater dose sparing of the OARs. Among ten GYN cases, the average V30 and V45 of rectum were decreased by 4%±4% (p = 0.02) and 4%±3% (p<0.01), respectively. V30 and V45 of bladder were decreased by 8%±2% (p<0.01) and 3%±2% (p<0.01), respectively. Our predicted dose sequence-based planning optimization method for GYN IMRT offered a flexible use of predicted 3D doses while ensuring the output plan consistency.

Advances in Automated Treatment Planning

Treatment planning in radiation therapy has progressed enormously over the past several decades. Such advancements came in the form of innovative hardware and algorithms, giving rise to modalities such as intensity-modulated radiation therapy and volume modulated arc therapy, greatly improving patient outcome and quality of life. While these developments have improved the overall plan quality, they have also given rise to higher treatment planning complexity. This has resulted in increased treatment planning time and higher variability in the final approved plan quality. Radiation oncology, as an already technologically advanced field, has much research and implementation involving the use of AI. The field has begun to show the efficacy of using such technologies in many of its sub-areas, such as in diagnosis, imaging, segmentation, treatment planning, quality assurance, treatment delivery, and follow-up. Some AI technologies have already been clinically implemented by commercial systems. In this article, we will provide an overview to methods involved with treatment planning in radiation therapy. In particular, we will review the recent research and literature related to automation of the treatment planning process, leading to potentially higher efficiency and higher quality plans. We will then present the current and future challenges, as well as some future perspectives.

OpenKBP-Opt: an international and reproducible evaluation of 76 knowledge-based planning pipelines

Objective.To establish an open framework for developing plan optimization models for knowledge-based planning (KBP).Approach.Our framework includes radiotherapy treatment data (i.e. reference plans) for 100 patients with head-and-neck cancer who were treated with intensity-modulated radiotherapy. That data also includes high-quality dose predictions from 19 KBP models that were developed by different research groups using out-of-sample data during the OpenKBP Grand Challenge. The dose predictions were input to four fluence-based dose mimicking models to form 76 unique KBP pipelines that generated 7600 plans (76 pipelines × 100 patients). The predictions and KBP-generated plans were compared to the reference plans via: the dose score, which is the average mean absolute voxel-by-voxel difference in dose; the deviation in dose-volume histogram (DVH) points; and the frequency of clinical planning criteria satisfaction. We also performed a theoretical investigation to justify our dose mimicking models.Main results.The range in rank order correlation of the dose score between predictions and their KBP pipelines was 0.50-0.62, which indicates that the quality of the predictions was generally positively correlated with the quality of the plans. Additionally, compared to the input predictions, the KBP-generated plans performed significantly better (P< 0.05; one-sided Wilcoxon test) on 18 of 23 DVH points. Similarly, each optimization model generated plans that satisfied a higher percentage of criteria than the reference plans, which satisfied 3.5% more criteria than the set of all dose predictions. Lastly, our theoretical investigation demonstrated that the dose mimicking models generated plans that are also optimal for an inverse planning model.Significance.This was the largest international effort to date for evaluating the combination of KBP prediction and optimization models. We found that the best performing models significantly outperformed the reference dose and dose predictions. In the interest of reproducibility, our data and code is freely available.

Artificial intelligence in radiotherapy

Radiotherapy is a discipline closely integrated with computer science. Artificial intelligence (AI) has developed rapidly over the past few years. With the explosive growth of medical big data, AI promises to revolutionize the field of radiotherapy through highly automated workflow, enhanced quality assurance, improved regional balances of expert experiences, and individualized treatment guided by multi-omics. In addition to independent researchers, the increasing number of large databases, biobanks, and open challenges significantly facilitated AI studies on radiation oncology. This article reviews the latest research, clinical applications, and challenges of AI in each part of radiotherapy including image processing, contouring, planning, quality assurance, motion management, and outcome prediction. By summarizing cutting-edge findings and challenges, we aim to inspire researchers to explore more future possibilities and accelerate the arrival of AI radiotherapy.

A Survey on Deep Learning for Precision Oncology

Precision oncology, which ensures optimized cancer treatment tailored to the unique biology of a patient’s disease, has rapidly developed and is of great clinical importance. Deep learning has become the main method for precision oncology. This paper summarizes the recent deep-learning approaches relevant to precision oncology and reviews over 150 articles within the last six years. First, we survey the deep-learning approaches categorized by various precision oncology tasks, including the estimation of dose distribution for treatment planning, survival analysis and risk estimation after treatment, prediction of treatment response, and patient selection for treatment planning. Secondly, we provide an overview of the studies per anatomical area, including the brain, bladder, breast, bone, cervix, esophagus, gastric, head and neck, kidneys, liver, lung, pancreas, pelvis, prostate, and rectum. Finally, we highlight the challenges and discuss potential solutions for future research directions.

The feasibility study on the generalization of deep learning dose prediction model for volumetric modulated arc therapy of cervical cancer

Purpose

To develop a 3D‐Unet dose prediction model to predict the three‐dimensional dose distribution of volumetric modulated arc therapy (VMAT) for cervical cancer and test the dose prediction performance of the model in endometrial cancer to explore the feasibility of model generalization.

Methods

One hundred and seventeen cases of cervical cancer and 20 cases of endometrial cancer treated with VMAT were used for the model training, validation, and test. The prescribed dose was 50.4 Gy in 28 fractions. Eight independent channels of contoured structures were input to the model, and the dose distribution was used as the output of the model. The 3D‐Unet prediction model was trained and validated on the training set (n = 86) and validation set (n = 11), respectively. Then the model was tested on the test set (n = 20) of cervical cancer and endometrial cancer, respectively. The results between clinical dose distribution and predicted dose distribution were compared in the following aspects: (a) the mean absolute error (MAE) within the body, (b) the Dice similarity coefficients (DSCs) under different isodose volumes, (c) the dosimetric indexes including the mean dose (D_mean), the received dose of 2 cm³ (D_2cc), the percentage volume of receiving 40 Gy dose of organs‐at‐risk (V₄₀), planning target volume (PTV) D_98%, and homogeneity index (HI), (d) dose–volume histograms (DVHs).

Results

The model can accurately predict the dose distribution of the VMAT plan for cervical cancer and endometrial cancer. The overall average MAE and maximum MAE for cervical cancer were 2.43 ± 3.17% and 3.16 ± 4.01% of the prescribed dose, respectively, and for endometrial cancer were 2.70 ± 3.54% and 3.85 ± 3.11%. The average DSCs under different isodose volumes is above 0.9. The predicted dosimetric indexes and DVHs are equivalent to the clinical dose for both cervical cancer and endometrial cancer, and there is no statistically significant difference.

Conclusion

A 3D‐Unet dose prediction model was developed for VMAT of cervical cancer, which can predict the dose distribution accurately for cervical cancer. The model can also be generalized for endometrial cancer with good performance.

Probabilistic Pareto plan generation for semiautomated multicriteria radiation therapy treatment planning

Objective.We propose a semiautomatic pipeline for radiation therapy treatment planning, combining ideas from machine learning-automated planning and multicriteria optimization (MCO).Approach.Using knowledge extracted from historically delivered plans, prediction models for spatial dose and dose statistics are trained and furthermore systematically modified to simulate changes in tradeoff priorities, creating a set of differently biased predictions. Based on the predictions, an MCO problem is subsequently constructed using previously developed dose mimicking functions, designed in such a way that its Pareto surface spans the range of clinically acceptable yet realistically achievable plans as exactly as possible. The result is an algorithm outputting a set of Pareto optimal plans, either fluence-based or machine parameter-based, which the user can navigate between in real time to make adjustments before a final deliverable plan is created.Main results.Numerical experiments performed on a dataset of prostate cancer patients show that one may often navigate to a better plan than one produced by a single-plan-output algorithm.Significance.We demonstrate the potential of merging MCO and a data-driven workflow to automate labor-intensive parts of the treatment planning process while maintaining a certain extent of manual control for the user.

Artificial Intelligence in Radiation Therapy

Artificial intelligence (AI) has great potential to transform the clinical workflow of radiotherapy. Since the introduction of deep neural networks, many AI-based methods have been proposed to address challenges in different aspects of radiotherapy. Commercial vendors have started to release AI-based tools that can be readily integrated to the established clinical workflow. To show the recent progress in AI-aided radiotherapy, we have reviewed AI-based studies in five major aspects of radiotherapy including image reconstruction, image registration, image segmentation, image synthesis, and automatic treatment planning. In each section, we summarized and categorized the recently published methods, followed by a discussion of the challenges, concerns, and future development. Given the rapid development of AI-aided radiotherapy, the efficiency and effectiveness of radiotherapy in the future could be substantially improved through intelligent automation of various aspects of radiotherapy.

Clinical utility of a new immobilization method in image-guided intensity-modulated radiotherapy for breast cancer patients after radical mastectomy

OBJECTIVE

To investigate clinical utility of a new immobilization method in image-guided intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) for breast cancer patients after radical mastectomy.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Forty patients with breast cancer who underwent radical mastectomy and postoperative IMRT were prospectively enrolled. The patients were randomly and equally divided into two groups using both a carbon-fiber support board and a hollowed-out cervicothoracic thermoplastic mask (Group A) and using only the board (Group B). An iSCOUT image-guided system was used for acquiring and correcting pretreatment setup errors for each treatment fraction. Initial setup errors and residual errors were obtained by aligning iSCOUT images with digitally reconstructed radiograph (DRR) images generated from planning CT. Totally 600 initial and residual errors were compared and analyzed between two groups, and the planning target volume (PTV) margins before and after the image-guided correction were calculated.

RESULTS

The initial setup errors of Group A and Group B were (3.14±3.07), (2.21±1.92), (2.45±1.92) mm and (3.14±2.97), (2.94±3.35), (2.80±2.47) mm in the left-right (LAT), superior-inferior (LONG), anterior-posterior (VERT) directions, respectively. The initial errors in Group A were smaller than those in Group B in the LONG direction (P < 0.05). No significant difference was found in the distribution of three initial error ranges (≤3 mm, 3-5 mm and > 5 mm) in each of the three translational directions for the two groups (P > 0.05). The residual errors of Group A and Group B were (1.74±1.03), (1.62±0.92), (1.66±0.91) mm and (1.70±0.97), (1.68±1.18), (1.58±0.98) mm in the three translational directions, respectively. No significant difference was found in the residual errors between two groups (P > 0.05). With the image-guided correction, PTV margins were reduced from 8.01, 5.44, 5.45 mm to 3.54, 2.99, 2.89 mm in three translational directions of Group A, respectively, and from 8.14, 10.89, 6.29 mm to 2.67, 3.64, 2.74 mm in those of Group B, respectively.

CONCLUSION

The use of hollowed-out cervicothoracic thermoplastic masks combined with a carbon-fiber support board showed better inter-fraction immobilization than the single use of the board in reducing longitudinal setup errors for breast cancer patients after radical mastectomy during IMRT treatment course, which has potential to reduce setup errors and improve the pretreatment immobilization accuracy for breast cancer IMRT after radical mastectomy.

Artificial intelligence applications in intensity modulated radiation treatment planning: an overview

Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to methods that improve and automate challenging human tasks by systematically capturing and applying relevant knowledge in these tasks. Over the past decades, a number of approaches have been developed to address different types and needs of system intelligence ranging from search strategies to knowledge representation and inference to robotic planning. In the context of radiation treatment planning, multiple AI approaches may be adopted to improve the planning quality and efficiency. For example, knowledge representation and inference methods may improve dose prescription by integrating and reasoning about the domain knowledge described in many clinical guidelines and clinical trials reports. In this review, we will focus on the most studied AI approach in intensity modulated radiation therapy (IMRT)/volumetric modulated arc therapy (VMAT)-machine learning (ML) and describe our recent efforts in applying ML to improve the quality, consistency, and efficiency of IMRT/VMAT planning. With the available high-quality data, we can build models to accurately predict critical variables for each step of the planning process and thus automate and improve its outcomes. Specific to the IMRT/VMAT planning process, we can build models for each of the four critical components in the process: dose-volume histogram (DVH), Dose, Fluence, and Human Planner. These models can be divided into two general groups. The first group focuses on encoding prior experience and knowledge through ML and more recently deep learning (DL) from prior clinical plans and using these models to predict the optimal DVH (DVH prediction model), or 3D dose distribution (dose prediction model), or fluence map (fluence map model). The goal of these models is to reduce or remove the trial-and-error process and guarantee consistently high-quality plans. The second group of models focuses on mimicking human planners' decision-making process (planning strategy model) during the iterative adjustments/guidance of the optimization engine. Each critical step of the IMRT/VMAT treatment planning process can be improved and automated by AI methods. As more training data becomes available and more sophisticated models are developed, we can expect that the AI methods in treatment planning will continue to improve accuracy, efficiency, and robustness.

Knowledge-based radiation treatment planning: A data-driven method survey

This paper surveys the data-driven dose prediction methods investigated for knowledge-based planning (KBP) in the last decade. These methods were classified into two major categories-traditional KBP methods and deep-learning (DL) methods-according to their techniques of utilizing previous knowledge. Traditional KBP methods include studies that require geometric or anatomical features to either find the best-matched case(s) from a repository of prior treatment plans or to build dose prediction models. DL methods include studies that train neural networks to make dose predictions. A comprehensive review of each category is presented, highlighting key features, methods, and their advancements over the years. We separated the cited works according to the framework and cancer site in each category. Finally, we briefly discuss the performance of both traditional KBP methods and DL methods, then discuss future trends of both data-driven KBP methods to dose prediction.

A feasibility study on deep learning-based individualized 3D dose distribution prediction

PURPOSE

Radiation therapy treatment planning is a trial-and-error, often time-consuming process. An approximately optimal dose distribution corresponding to a specific patient's anatomy can be predicted by using pre-trained deep learning (DL) models. However, dose distributions are often optimized based not only on patient-specific anatomy but also on physicians' preferred trade-offs between planning target volume (PTV) coverage and organ at risk (OAR) sparing or among different OARs. Therefore, it is desirable to allow physicians to fine-tune the dose distribution predicted based on patient anatomy. In this work, we developed a DL model to predict the individualized 3D dose distributions by using not only the patient's anatomy but also the desired PTV/OAR trade-offs, as represented by a dose volume histogram (DVH), as inputs.

METHODS

In this work, we developed a modified U-Net network to predict the 3D dose distribution by using patient PTV/OAR masks and the desired DVH as inputs. The desired DVH, fine-tuned by physicians from the initially predicted DVH, is first projected onto the Pareto surface, then converted into a vector, and then concatenated with feature maps encoded from the PTV/OAR masks. The network output for training is the dose distribution corresponding to the Pareto optimal DVH. The training/validation datasets contain 77 prostate cancer patients, and the testing dataset has 20 patients.

RESULTS

The trained model can predict a 3D dose distribution that is approximately Pareto optimal while having the DVH closest to the input desired DVH. We calculated the difference between the predicted dose distribution and the optimized dose distribution that has a DVH closest to the desired one for the PTV and for all OARs as a quantitative evaluation. The largest absolute error in mean dose was about 3.6% of the prescription dose, and the largest absolute error in the maximum dose was about 2.0% of the prescription dose.

CONCLUSIONS

In this feasibility study, we have developed a 3D U-Net model with the patient's anatomy and the desired DVH curves as inputs to predict an individualized 3D dose distribution that is approximately Pareto optimal while having the DVH closest to the desired one. The predicted dose distributions can be used as references for dosimetrists and physicians to rapidly develop a clinically acceptable treatment plan.

A comparison of Monte Carlo dropout and bootstrap aggregation on the performance and uncertainty estimation in radiation therapy dose prediction with deep learning neural networks

Recently, artificial intelligence technologies and algorithms have become a major focus for advancements in treatment planning for radiation therapy. As these are starting to become incorporated into the clinical workflow, a major concern from clinicians is not whether the model is accurate, but whether the model can express to a human operator when it does not know if its answer is correct. We propose to use Monte Carlo Dropout (MCDO) and the bootstrap aggregation (bagging) technique on deep learning (DL) models to produce uncertainty estimations for radiation therapy dose prediction. We show that both models are capable of generating a reasonable uncertainty map, and, with our proposed scaling technique, creating interpretable uncertainties and bounds on the prediction and any relevant metrics. Performance-wise, bagging provides statistically significant reduced loss value and errors in most of the metrics investigated in this study. The addition of bagging was able to further reduce errors by another 0.34% for [Formula: see text] and 0.19% for [Formula: see text] on average, when compared to the baseline model. Overall, the bagging framework provided significantly lower mean absolute error (MAE) of 2.62, as opposed to the baseline model's MAE of 2.87. The usefulness of bagging, from solely a performance standpoint, does highly depend on the problem and the acceptable predictive error, and its high upfront computational cost during training should be factored in to deciding whether it is advantageous to use it. In terms of deployment with uncertainty estimations turned on, both methods offer the same performance time of about 12 s. As an ensemble-based metaheuristic, bagging can be used with existing machine learning architectures to improve stability and performance, and MCDO can be applied to any DL models that have dropout as part of their architecture.